Lupus vasculitis

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Lupus vasculitis
Cutaneous small-vessel vasculitis.jpg
Cutaneous small-vessel vasculitis. Bilateral palpable purpura and necrotic lesions
Specialty Rheumatology

Lupus vasculitis is one of the secondary vasculitides that occurs in approximately 50% of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). [1]

Contents

Large vessel involvement is extremely uncommon; medium-sized vessels can also be impacted, but small vessels are the most frequently linked to it. Lupus vasculitis can affect multiple organ systems and show up as a wide range of clinical manifestations depending on the location and size of the affected vessels. [2]

Lupus vasculitis typically indicates a dismal prognosis, so early diagnosis is essential to a successful outcome. [2] The disease can affect small vessels or a single organ, and it can range in severity from a relatively mild condition to a multiorgan system disease with potentially fatal symptoms, like mesenteric vasculitis, [3] pulmonary hemorrhage, [4] or mononeuritis multiplex. [5]

The organs affected and the severity of the vasculitis process determine the course of treatment. [6]

Signs and symptoms

Cutaneous vasculitis is the most common type of vasulitis amongst those with systemic lupus erythematosus. [7] The clinical presentation is variable and can include superficial ulcerations, splinter hemorrhages, panniculitis, macules, erythema with necrosis or erythematous plaques, cutaneous infarction, livedo reticularis, bullous lesions of the extremities or urticaria lesions, papulonodular lesions, petechiae, and palpable purpura. [8] The majority of skin lesions are composed of nodular lesions, erythema of the hand dorsum, and discoid erythematosus lesions, which are typically found on the fingertips. [9] Most of the time, small vessels—primarily post-capillary venules—are involved. Less commonly, medium-vessel vasculitis manifests as ischemic ulcers or subcutaneous nodules. [2]

Patients with SLE may experience peripheral and central nervous system vasculitis. The most prevalent clinical manifestation at the peripheral level is mononeuritis multiplex. Rather than affecting many nerves diffusely, it affects a single nerve focally or multifocally. Clinical manifestations consist of peripheral neuropathy affecting at least two distinct nerve areas that is asymmetrical, progressive, and asynchronous, as well as weakness, pain, and sensory loss. [5] Contiguous nerves are affected as the disease progresses, resulting in a syndrome that resembles a generalized polyneuropathy. [10] Patients with SLE may also develop a mild-to-moderately-severe peripheral symmetric sensory polyneuropathy. [11] At the central level, the most commonly reported clinical features that may manifest concurrently or independently during the course of the disease are seizure disorders, cerebrovascular disease, demyelinating syndrome, and cognitive dysfunction. [12]

Lupus enteritis, or SLE-related vasculitis of the gastrointestinal tract, is a rare condition; the estimated prevalence of SLE patients is 9.7%. [13] Lupus mesenteric vasculitis is a common manifestation of gastrointestinal vasculitis in SLE. [14] One of the most deadly consequences of SLE is lupus mesenteric vasculitis, which has a 50% death rate when severe, occlusive damage leads to bowel ischemia and possible small- or large-bowel necrosis, which can then develop into perforation and bleeding. [3] The main symptoms are bloating, diarrhea, vomiting, nausea, hematemesis, melena, and acute abdominal pain. [15] Urinary symptoms such as dysuria and lupus cystitis may be associated with lupus mesenteric vasculitis in about 22.7% of cases. [16]

The least common renal vascular injury associated with lupus nephritis is true renal vasculitis, which has not been widely documented in the literature. It was discovered after the fact in renal biopsies in 2.8%, [17] 2.4%, [18] and 0.6% of cases. [19] Although the clinical manifestations of various vascular lesions differ, SLE patients with renal vasculitis typically exhibit anemia, glomerular lesions, hematuria, hypertension that often worsens the vascular changes, high SLEDAI scores, and severe renal insufficiently with rapid progression to renal failure. [20]

Rarely is retinal vasculitis reported as a complication in case reports. [21] Usually, involvement occurs in the precapillary superficial arterial vasculature. [22] Retinal vasculitis may manifest as asymptomatic or with decreased vision, painless blurred vision or permanent vision loss. [23]

Few case reports of coronary vasculitis have been documented in the literature, making it an uncommon illness. [24] It frequently shows up in the absence of laboratory evidence of active SLE and clinical SLE flare. [25] There have also been isolated reports of myocardial dysfunction brought on by small vessel vasculitis and cardiac valve malfunction. [26]

Diffuse alveolar hemorrhage, which results from red blood cells entering the alveolar spaces as a result of extensive pulmonary vessel damage and disruption of the alveolar-capillary basement membrane, is the most frequent clinical manifestation of lupus pulmonary vasculitis. [27] In more than 60% of cases, symptoms can include fever, chest pain, hemoptysis, coughing, and progressive and severe dyspnea. It's possible for some patients to have no symptoms. [4]

Causes

Lupus vasculitis is a secondary vasculitis that may manifest in the form of acute or subacute lupus symptoms as a result of an inflammatory process caused by immune complex deposition within blood vessel walls. [28] On the other hand, it might manifest as comorbidity linked to steroids (steroid-related atherosclerosis) or as the combined pathogenetic effect of heightened atherosclerosis in a proinflammatory milieu. [29]

Mechanism

The development of lupus vasculitis is not fully understood. It involves complex interactions between an aggressive immune response against the body's own cells, inflammatory changes, and blood vessels. Immune complexes (made up of antibodies that mistakenly attack self-proteins) get deposited in blood vessel walls, which triggers an inflammatory response that damages these blood vessels over time. [30] Injury to blood vessels can cause the vessel wall to thicken which prevents adequate blood flow to organs, or to weaken which leads to bleeding into the surrounding tissues.

Various autoantibodies have been identified in the development of lupus vasculitis including anti-endothelial cell antibodies (AECA), anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA), anti-phospholipid antibody (aPL), and anti-double stranded DNA (anti-dsDNA). [30] Other processes that may contribute to the progression of vasculitis include changes in cell death signaling and impaired clearance of dying cells.

Other forms of vasculitis in SLE patients can be caused by drugs or infections. In drug-induced lupus vasculitis, the drug molecule forms a hapten that triggers an intense immune response within the vasculature. Some of these drugs include penicillin, thiazides, monoclonal antibodies, and carbamazepine. [31] [30] Infection-induced lupus vasculitis involves the direct attack of pathogens on vessel walls with subsequent immune complex deposition, inflammation, and injury to blood vessels. [30] [32]

Diagnosis

Skin biopsies from individuals who had lupus cutaneous vasculitis showed secondary changes to the overlying epidermis and sweat glands, variable fibrinoid necrosis of the vessel walls, and fragmented neutrophilic nuclei (a leukocytoclastic variant). [30]

Nervous system vasculitis affecting the peripheral nervous system is histologically characterized by chronic axonal degeneration, necrotizing, or occlusive vasculitis of the vasa nervorum, and demyelination. [33] For clinicians, diagnosing central nervous vasculitis can be difficult. The gold standard for the diagnosis is a brain biopsy, but because the vascular lesions are segmental in nature, this is a highly invasive procedure with limited sensitivity. Without a brain biopsy, an early diagnosis can frequently be made using a combination of neuroimaging, clinical features, and relevant diagnostic investigations. [12]

Computed tomography (CT), which visualizes the abdominal vasculature as well as the colon wall, is the gold standard for diagnosing gastrointestinal vasculitis. Bowel wall edema, target signs, intestinal segment dilatation, increased attenuation of mesenteric fat,  prominent mesenteric vessels, and ascites are typical tomographic findings. [34]

Fluorescein angiography and optical coherence tomography are two types of retinal imaging that can be useful in diagnosing and characterizing retinal vasculitis. [21]

Serial coronary angiographic studies that reveal arterial aneurysms, tapered stenoses, and/or rapidly forming arterial occlusions are typically used to diagnose coronary vasculitis. [26]

Treatment

The European League Against Rheumatism's (EULAR) updated recommendations for SLE serve as a clinical benchmark, but the course of treatment for lupus vasculitis should be determined by the severity of the condition and its accompanying symptoms. [6] Typically, oral corticosteroids and immunosuppressants like mycophenolate mofetil, azathioprine, and methotrexate are used to treat mild-to-moderate symptoms. For the severe and potentially fatal forms, a more aggressive course of treatment including intravenous high-dose corticosteroids, rituximab, cyclophosphamide,  intravenous immunoglobulin, and/or plasmapheresis is taken into consideration. [26]

Several serious complications of lupus vasculitis that require immediate and aggressive treatment include the GI tract (mesenteric vasculitis with bowel ischemia), nervous system (seizures, transverse myelitis, multiple mononeuropathy), or lungs (diffuse alveolar hemorrhage). [30] Currently, there lacks clinical trials specific for the treatment of lupus vasculitis. Due to this limitation, therapy recommendations are often made based on treatment for other autoimmune disease or vasculitis syndromes. [31] [30]

Milder symptoms are commonly treated with oral corticosteroids and immunosuppressants such as methotrexate or azathioprine. Severe cases require more aggressive therapy with high-dose intravenous corticosteroids, monoclonal antibodies, cyclophosphamide, intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), or plasmapheresis. [31] [30] For skin involvement, some reported therapies include hydroxychloroquine, colchicine, mycophenolate mofetil, or rituximab. [31] [30]

See also

References

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  2. 1 2 3 Leone, Patrizia; Cicco, Sebastiano; Vacca, Angelo; Dammacco, Franco; Racanelli, Vito (2016). "Vasculitis in Connective Tissue Diseases". Systemic Vasculitides: Current Status and Perspectives. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 345–359. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-40136-2_30. ISBN   978-3-319-40134-8.
  3. 1 2 Janssens, Peter; Arnaud, Laurent; Galicier, Lionel; Mathian, Alexis; Hie, Miguel; Sene, Damien; Haroche, Julien; Veyssier-Belot, Catherine; Huynh-Charlier, Isabelle; Grenier, Philippe A; Piette, Jean-Charles; Amoura, Zahir (May 3, 2013). "Lupus enteritis: from clinical findings to therapeutic management". Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases. 8 (1) 67. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. doi: 10.1186/1750-1172-8-67 . ISSN   1750-1172. PMC   3651279 . PMID   23642042.
  4. 1 2 Schwab, Edna P.; Schumacher, H. Ralph; Freundlich, Bruce; Callegari, Peter E. (1993). "Pulmonary alveolar hemorrhage in systemic lupus erythematosus". Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism. 23 (1). Elsevier BV: 8–15. doi:10.1016/s0049-0172(05)80022-8. ISSN   0049-0172. PMID   8235667.
  5. 1 2 Bortoluzzi, Alessandra; Silvagni, Ettore; Furini, Federica; Piga, Matteo; Govoni, Marcello (2019). "Peripheral nervous system involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus: a review of the evidence". Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology. 37 (1): 146–155. ISSN   0392-856X. PMID   29846158.
  6. 1 2 Fanouriakis, Antonis; Kostopoulou, Myrto; Alunno, Alessia; Aringer, Martin; Bajema, Ingeborg; Boletis, John N; Cervera, Ricard; Doria, Andrea; Gordon, Caroline; Govoni, Marcello; Houssiau, Frédéric; Jayne, David; Kouloumas, Marios; Kuhn, Annegret; Larsen, Janni L; Lerstrøm, Kirsten; Moroni, Gabriella; Mosca, Marta; Schneider, Matthias; Smolen, Josef S; Svenungsson, Elisabet; Tesar, Vladimir; Tincani, Angela; Troldborg, Anne; van Vollenhoven, Ronald; Wenzel, Jörg; Bertsias, George; Boumpas, Dimitrios T (March 29, 2019). "2019 update of the EULAR recommendations for the management of systemic lupus erythematosus". Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 78 (6). BMJ: 736–745. doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2019-215089 . hdl: 11392/2403578 . ISSN   0003-4967. PMID   30926722.
  7. ↑ Kallas, Romy; Goldman, Daniel; Petri, Michelle A (2020). "Cutaneous vasculitis in SLE". Lupus Science & Medicine. 7 (1). BMJ: e000411. doi: 10.1136/lupus-2020-000411 . ISSN   2053-8790. PMC   7509964 . PMID   32963114.
  8. ↑ Drenkard, C.; Villa, A.R.; Reyes, E.; Abello, M.; Alarcón-Segovia, D. (1997). "Vasculitis in systemic lupus erythematosus". Lupus. 6 (3). SAGE Publications: 235–242. doi:10.1177/096120339700600304. ISSN   0961-2033. PMID   9104729. S2CID   19985236.
  9. ↑ Ramos-Casals, Manuel; Nardi, Norma; Lagrutta, Mariana; Brito-Zerón, Pilar; Bové, Albert; Delgado, German; Cervera, Ricard; Ingelmo, Miguel; Font, Josep (2006). "Vasculitis in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus". Medicine. 85 (2). Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health): 95–104. doi: 10.1097/01.md.0000216817.35937.70 . ISSN   0025-7974. PMID   16609348.
  10. ↑ Gorson, Kenneth C. (2007). "Vasculitic Neuropathies". The Neurologist. 13 (1). Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health): 12–19. doi:10.1097/01.nrl.0000252942.14928.17. ISSN   1074-7931. PMID   17215723. S2CID   41901476.
  11. ↑ Florica, Brandusa; Aghdassi, Ellie; Su, Jiandong; Gladman, Dafna D.; Urowitz, Murray B.; Fortin, Paul R. (2011). "Peripheral Neuropathy in Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus". Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism. 41 (2). Elsevier BV: 203–211. doi:10.1016/j.semarthrit.2011.04.001. ISSN   0049-0172. PMID   21641018.
  12. 1 2 Rodrigues, M; Galego, O; Costa, C; Jesus, D; Carvalho, P; Santiago, M; Malcata, A; Inês, L (February 26, 2017). "Central nervous system vasculitis in systemic lupus erythematosus: a case series report in a tertiary referral centre". Lupus. 26 (13). SAGE Publications: 1440–1447. doi:10.1177/0961203317694259. ISSN   0961-2033. PMID   28420057. S2CID   10494588.
  13. ↑ Kröner, Paul T.; Tolaymat, Omar A.; Bowman, Andrew W.; Abril, Andy; Lacy, Brian E. (June 12, 2019). "Gastrointestinal Manifestations of Rheumatological Diseases". American Journal of Gastroenterology. 114 (9). Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health): 1441–1454. doi:10.14309/ajg.0000000000000260. ISSN   0002-9270. PMID   31205138. S2CID   189945962.
  14. ↑ Ju, Ji Hyeon; Min, Jun-Ki; Jung, Chan-Kwon; Oh, Soon Nam; Kwok, Seung-Ki; Kang, Kwi Young; Park, Kyung-Su; Ko, Hyuk-Jae; Yoon, Chong-Hyeon; Park, Sung-Hwan; Cho, Chul-Soo; Kim, Ho-Youn (2009). "Lupus mesenteric vasculitis can cause acute abdominal pain in patients with SLE". Nature Reviews Rheumatology. 5 (5). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 273–281. doi:10.1038/nrrheum.2009.53. ISSN   1759-4790. PMID   19412194. S2CID   12764348.
  15. ↑ Lee, C-K (June 1, 2002). "Acute abdominal pain in systemic lupus erythematosus: focus on lupus enteritis (gastrointestinal vasculitis)". Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 61 (6). BMJ: 547–550. doi:10.1136/ard.61.6.547. ISSN   0003-4967. PMC   1754133 . PMID   12006332.
  16. ↑ Xu, Danyi; Lin, Jin (2015). "Urinary tract involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus: Coexistence with lupus mesenteric vasculitis or intestinal pseudo-obstruction?". Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism. 44 (4). Elsevier BV: e9. doi:10.1016/j.semarthrit.2014.05.018. ISSN   0049-0172. PMID   24953799.
  17. ↑ Banfi, Giovanni; Bertani, Tullio; Boeri, Vincenzo; Faraggiana, Tullio; Mazzucco, Giovanna; Monga, Guido; Sacchi, Giuseppe (1991). "Renal Vascular Lesions as a Marker of Poor Prognosis in Patients With Lupus Nephritis". American Journal of Kidney Diseases. 18 (2). Elsevier BV: 240–248. doi:10.1016/s0272-6386(12)80885-7. ISSN   0272-6386. PMID   1867181.
  18. ↑ Descombes, Eric; Droz, Dominique; Drouet, Ludovic; Grünfeld, Jean-Pierre; Lesavre, Philippe (1997). "Renal Vascular Lesions in Lupus Nephritis". Medicine. 76 (5). Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health): 355–368. doi: 10.1097/00005792-199709000-00003 . ISSN   0025-7974. PMID   9352738.
  19. ↑ Wu, Li-Hua; Yu, Feng; Tan, Ying; Qu, Zhen; Chen, Meng-Hua; Wang, Su-Xia; Liu, Gang; Zhao, Ming-Hui (2013). "Inclusion of renal vascular lesions in the 2003 ISN/RPS system for classifying lupus nephritis improves renal outcome predictions". Kidney International. 83 (4). Elsevier BV: 715–723. doi: 10.1038/ki.2012.409 . ISSN   0085-2538. PMID   23302713.
  20. ↑ Ding, Ying; Tan, Ying; Qu, Zhen; Yu, Feng (December 20, 2019). "Renal microvascular lesions in lupus nephritis". Renal Failure. 42 (1). Informa UK Limited: 19–29. doi: 10.1080/0886022x.2019.1702057 . ISSN   0886-022X. PMC   6968586 . PMID   31858861.
  21. 1 2 Androudi, Sofia; Dastiridou, Anna; Symeonidis, Chrysanthos; Kump, Leila; Praidou, Anna; Brazitikos, Periklis; Kurup, Shree K. (September 6, 2012). "Retinal vasculitis in rheumatic diseases: an unseen burden". Clinical Rheumatology. 32 (1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 7–13. doi:10.1007/s10067-012-2078-1. ISSN   0770-3198. PMID   22955636. S2CID   2836199.
  22. ↑ Chin, Daniel; Gan, Nicola Y.; Holder, Graham E.; Tien, Melissa; Agrawal, Rupesh; Manghani, Mona (March 15, 2021). "Severe retinal vasculitis in systemic lupus erythematosus leading to vision threatening paracentral acute middle maculopathy". Modern Rheumatology Case Reports. 5 (2). Oxford University Press (OUP): 265–271. doi:10.1080/24725625.2021.1893961. ISSN   2472-5625. PMID   33627049. S2CID   232048767.
  23. ↑ BUTENDIECK, RONALD R.; PARIKH, KIMBERLY; STEWART, MICHAEL; DAVIDGE-PITTS, CAROLINE; ABRIL, ANDY (2012). "Systemic Lupus Erythematosus-associated Retinal Vasculitis". The Journal of Rheumatology. 39 (5): 1095–1096. doi: 10.3899/jrheum.111462 . ISSN   0315-162X. PMID   22550008.
  24. ↑ Caracciolo, Eugene A.; Marcu, Constantin B.; Ghantous, Andre; Donohue, Thomas J.; Hutchinson, Gordon (2004). "Coronary Vasculitis With Acute Myocardial Infarction in a Young Woman With Systemic Lupus Erythematosus". JCR: Journal of Clinical Rheumatology. 10 (2). Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health): 66–68. doi:10.1097/01.rhu.0000111317.80408.16. ISSN   1076-1608. PMID   17043468.
  25. ↑ Barile-Fabris, L.; Hernández-Cabrera, M. F.; Barragan-Garfias, J. A. (July 15, 2014). "Vasculitis in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus". Current Rheumatology Reports. 16 (9) 440. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. doi:10.1007/s11926-014-0440-9. ISSN   1523-3774. PMID   25023725. S2CID   38020123.
  26. 1 2 3 Fessler, Barri; Hoffman, Gary S (October 29, 2010). Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (5 ed.). MA, USA: Academic Press. pp. 833–845. ISBN   9780080961712 . Retrieved 18 December 2023.
  27. ↑ Nasser, Mouhamad; Cottin, Vincent (2018). "Alveolar Hemorrhage in Vasculitis (Primary and Secondary)". Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 39 (4). Georg Thieme Verlag KG: 482–493. doi:10.1055/s-0038-1668533. ISSN   1069-3424. PMID   30404115. S2CID   53211301.
  28. ↑ Kallenberg, C GM; Heeringa, P (1998). "Pathogenesis of vasculitis". Lupus. 7 (4). SAGE Publications: 280–284. doi:10.1191/096120398678920109. ISSN   0961-2033. PMID   9643319.
  29. ↑ Pyrpasopoulou, Athina; Chatzimichailidou, Sofia; Aslanidis, Spyros (2012). "Vascular Disease in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus". Autoimmune Diseases. 2012. Hindawi Limited: 1–4. doi: 10.1155/2012/876456 . ISSN   2090-0422. PMC   3432322 . PMID   22957213.
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Leone, Patrizia; Prete, Marcella; Malerba, Eleonora; Bray, Antonella; Susca, Nicola; Ingravallo, Giuseppe; Racanelli, Vito (November 5, 2021). "Lupus Vasculitis: An Overview". Biomedicines. 9 (11). MDPI AG: 1626. doi: 10.3390/biomedicines9111626 . ISSN   2227-9059. PMC   8615745 . PMID   34829857.
  31. 1 2 3 4 Calle-Botero, Estefania; Abril, Andy (2020-08-26). "Lupus Vasculitis". Current Rheumatology Reports. 22 (10): 71. doi:10.1007/s11926-020-00937-0. ISSN   1534-6307. PMID   32845454. S2CID   221329029.
  32. ↑ Pyrpasopoulou, Athina; Chatzimichailidou, Sofia; Aslanidis, Spyros (2012). "Vascular disease in systemic lupus erythematosus". Autoimmune Diseases. 2012: 876456. doi: 10.1155/2012/876456 . ISSN   2090-0430. PMC   3432322 . PMID   22957213.
  33. ↑ Toledano, Pilar; Orueta, Ramón; Rodríguez-Pintó, Ignasi; Valls-Solé, Josep; Cervera, Ricard; Espinosa, Gerard (2017). "Peripheral nervous system involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus: Prevalence, clinical and immunological characteristics, treatment and outcome of a large cohort from a single centre". Autoimmunity Reviews. 16 (7). Elsevier BV: 750–755. doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2017.05.011. ISSN   1568-9972. PMID   28483540.
  34. ↑ Koo, B S; Hong, S; Kim, Y J; Kim, Y-G; Lee, C-K; Yoo, B (November 12, 2014). "Lupus enteritis: clinical characteristics and predictive factors for recurrence". Lupus. 24 (6). SAGE Publications: 628–632. doi:10.1177/0961203314558858. ISSN   0961-2033. PMID   25391541. S2CID   206602247.

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