Men's movement

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The men's movement is a social movement that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, primarily in Western countries, which consists of groups and organizations of men and their allies who focus on gender issues and whose activities range from self-help and support to lobbying and activism. [1]

Contents

The men's movement is made up of several movements that have differing and often antithetical goals. [1] Major components of the men's movement include the men's liberation movement, masculinism, profeminist men's movement, mythopoetic men's movement, men's rights movement, and the Christian men's movement, most notably represented by the Promise Keepers. [1]

Men's liberation movement

The men's movement consisted of "networks of men self-consciously involved in activities relating to men and gender. It emerged in the late 1960s and 1970s in Western societies, alongside and often in response to the women's movement and feminism." [1] Whilst bearing many of the hallmarks of therapeutic, self-help groups, men's movement groupings have increasingly come to view personal growth and better relations with other men as "useless without an accompanying shift in the social relations and ideologies that support or marginalise different ways of being men". [1] Men's movement activists who are sympathetic to feminist standpoints have been greatly concerned with deconstructing male identity and masculinity. [1] Taking a cue from early feminists who criticized the traditional female gender role, members of the men's liberation movement used the language of sex role theory to argue that the male gender role was similarly restrictive and damaging to men. [2] [3] Some men's liberationists decontextualized gender relations and argued that since sex roles were equally harmful to both sexes women and men were equally oppressed. [1] [2]

Sociologist Michael Messner writes that by the late 1970s,

[M]en's liberation had disappeared. The conservative and moderate wings of men's liberation became an anti-feminist men's rights movement, facilitated by the language of sex roles. The progressive wing of men's liberation abandoned sex role language and formed a profeminist movement premised on a language of gender relations and power. [2]

Pro-feminist men's movements

The profeminist men's movement emerged from the men's liberation movement in the mid 1970s. [2] [4] The first Men and Masculinity Conference, held in Tennessee in 1975, was one of the first organized activities by profeminist men in the United States. [5] The profeminist men's movement was influenced by second-wave feminism, the Black Power and student activism movement, the anti-war movement, and LGBT social movements of the 1960s and 1970s. [2] [5] It is the strand of the men's movement that generally embraces the egalitarian goals of feminism. [5] [6]

The feminist movement refers to a series of political campaigns for reforms on issues such as reproductive rights, domestic violence, maternity leave, equal pay, women's suffrage, sexual harassment, and sexual violence. The term is most often used to talk about men who support feminism and its efforts to bring about the political, economic, cultural, personal, and social equality of women with men. Many profeminist men believe that masculinity is caused by homophobia and that the dominant model of masculinity is heterosexuality. Men who actively support feminism attempt to bring about gender justice and equality. Their sympathy for feminism revolves around a simple acceptance that men and women should be equal. Women should have the access to jobs and areas of public life as do men. The problem is that there are two general systems, the one fundamentally based on hierarchy and privilege and the other system profeminist men disagree on, arguing that they must change the content of models of masculinity rather than get rid of notions of masculinity and femininity altogether. The fear of being seen as gay prevents boys and men from questioning and ultimately abandoning traditional masculinity. Many pro-feminist men thus believe that men and masculinity will not change much until homophobia is radically undermined. Men have a vital role to play in the transformation of gender relations begun by feminism and the women's movements. Pro-feminist men are welcome and important participants in this process. "Studies of representations of masculinity in the media often highlight constructions that center masculinity around notions of violence, control, aggression." [7]

Profeminist men have questioned the cultural ideal of traditional masculinity. They often argue that social expectations and norms have forced men into rigid gender roles, limited men's ability to express themselves, and restricted their choices to behaviors regarded as socially acceptable for men. [5] Moreover, profeminist men have sought to disestablish sexism and reduce discrimination against women. [6] They have campaigned alongside feminists on a variety of issues, including the Equal Rights Amendment, reproductive rights, laws against employment discrimination, affordable child care, and to end sexual violence against women. [2] [5] [6]

"Feminist men's movements have organised around the rejection of traditional styles of masculinity in support of feminist women's movements. They exist in many countries and many feminist men's groups focus on involving men in anti-violence work." [8] NOMAS in the United States, the Achilles Heel Collective in the UK and Men Against Sexual Assault in Australia are some of the better known feminist men's movements although the organizations that are globally known are still fairly small and unstable with low membership rates. Achilles Heel was one of the most prominent pro feminist men's groups. It revolved around the bi annual magazine, Achilles Heel and aimed "to challenge traditional forms of masculinity and male power and support the creation of alternative social structures and personal ways of being." [9] "Feminist campaigns such as #MeToo have prompted large numbers of men to reflect on their own sexual and social relations with women, although there is pushback and backlash too." [10] Criticisms of some pro feminist men's campaigns have been that they do too little, simply signing a form or wearing a ribbon instead of taking real action such as addressing their own behaviour and the behaviour of their peers. While feminism has recently gained more traction in society, it has allowed for more men to adopt tokenistic support for feminism which lacks real substance. [10]

In more recent decades following the beginning of the profeminist men's movement in the United States, similar and interconnected initiatives have been organized internationally. [11] In 2004, a number of leaders involved with engaging men and boys in gender justice around the world came together to form the global organization MenEngage. [12] Since then MenEngage has organized two international conferences; one in Rio de Janeiro in 2009 and another in New Delhi in 2014. [12]

Significant profeminist writers include David Tacey and Raewyn Connell, [13] Robert Jensen, Jackson Katz, [14] and Don Edgar. [15]

Men's and fathers' rights movements

Men's Rights Movement Rally, India India MHRM commons.jpg
Men's Rights Movement Rally, India

The men's rights movement branched off from the men's liberation movement in the mid- to late 1970s. [2] [16] It focused specifically on issues of perceived discrimination and inequalities faced by men. [2] [17] The MRM has been involved in a variety of issues related to law (including family law, parenting, reproduction and domestic violence), government services (including education, military service and social safety nets) health. [16]

The fathers' rights movement is a subset of the men's rights movement. [18] [19] [20] Its members are primarily interested in issues related to family law, including child custody and child support that affect fathers and their children. [21] [22]

Prominent men's rights activists include Warren Farrell, [17] Herb Goldberg, [17] Richard Doyle, [23] and Asa Baber. [24] [25] Glenn Sacks is a fathers' rights activist. [26]

Mythopoetic men's movement

The mythopoetic men's movement is based on spiritual perspectives derived from psychoanalysis, and especially the work of Carl Jung. It is less political than either the profeminist or men's rights movement and has a self-help focus. [27] It is called "mythopoetic" because of the emphasis on mythology communicated as poetry with some appropriation of indigenous, e.g. Native American, mythology and knowledge. Robert Bly, a leading mythopoetic, has criticized "soft men" and argued that boys must be initiated into manhood in order to possess "Zeus energy", which according to Bly is "male authority" that "encompasses intelligence, robust health, compassionate decisiveness, good will, generous leadership". [27] Mythopoetic men emphasize "elder honouring", "reclaiming" fathers, and "unleashing the wild man within", but with an emphasis on the impact of fatherlessness on men's psychological development.

Masculinity is seen to include deep unconscious patterns and archetypes that are revealed through myth, story and ritual, as supported by theories drawn from analytical or "depth" psychology.

There is some overlap with men's rights and men's liberation perspectives.

Activities include:

Robert Bly, James Hillman, Michael J. Meade, Sam Keen, Robert L. Moore, [1] and Stephen Biddulph [28] are prominent mythopoetic authors.

Terminology

Sociologists Michael Messner and Michael Flood have argued separately that the term "movement" is problematic as, unlike other social movements, the men's movement has mostly been focused on self-improvement, is internally contradictory, and consists of members of what they argue is a privileged group. [1] [2]

See also

Related Research Articles

Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism holds the position that societies prioritize the male point of view and that women are treated unjustly in these societies. Efforts to change this include fighting against gender stereotypes and improving educational, professional, and interpersonal opportunities and outcomes for women.

Misandry is the hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against men or boys.

Radical feminism is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical re-ordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts, while recognizing that women's experiences are also affected by other social divisions such as in race, class, and sexual orientation. The ideology and movement emerged in the 1960s.

Gender studies is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to analysing gender identity and gendered representation. Gender studies originated in the field of women's studies, concerning women, feminism, gender, and politics. The field now overlaps with queer studies and men's studies. Its rise to prominence, especially in Western universities after 1990, coincided with the rise of deconstruction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Masculinity</span> Attributes associated with boys and men

Masculinity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles associated with men and boys. Masculinity can be theoretically understood as socially constructed, and there is also evidence that some behaviors considered masculine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex, as anyone can exhibit masculine traits. Standards of masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods.

The men's rights movement (MRM) is a branch of the men's movement. The MRM in particular consists of a variety of groups and individuals who focus on general social issues and specific government services which they say adversely impact, or in some cases, structurally discriminate against, men and boys. Common topics discussed within the men's rights movement include family law, reproduction, suicides, domestic violence against men, false accusations of rape, circumcision, education, conscription, social safety nets, and health policies. The men's rights movement branched off from the men's liberation movement in the early 1970s, with both groups comprising a part of the larger men's movement.

Male privilege is the system of advantages or rights that are available to men on the basis of their sex. A man's access to these benefits may vary depending on how closely they match their society's ideal masculine norm.

Pro-feminism refers to support of the cause of feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the feminist movement. The term is most often used in reference to men who actively support feminism and its efforts to bring about the political, economic, cultural, personal, and social equality of women with men. A number of pro-feminist men are involved in political activism, most often in the areas of gender equality, women's rights, and ending violence against women.

Men's studies is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to topics concerning men, masculinity, gender, culture, politics and sexuality. It academically examines what it means to be a man in contemporary society.

Antifeminism, also spelled anti-feminism, is opposition to feminism. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, antifeminists opposed particular policy proposals for women's rights, such as the right to vote, educational opportunities, property rights, and access to birth control. In the mid and late 20th century, antifeminists often opposed the abortion-rights movement.

The mythopoetic men's movement was a body of self-help activities and therapeutic workshops and retreats for men undertaken by various organizations and authors in the United States from the early 1980s through the 1990s. The term mythopoetic was coined by professor Shepherd Bliss in preference to the term "New Age men's movement". Mythopoets adopted a general style of psychological self-help inspired by the work of Robert Bly, Robert A. Johnson, Joseph Campbell, and other Jungian authors. The group activities used in the movement were largely influenced by ideas derived from Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung, known as Jungian psychology, e.g., Jungian archetypes, from which the use of myths and fairy tales taken from various cultures served as ways to interpret challenges facing men in society.

The men's liberation movement is a social movement critical of the restraints which society imposes on men. Men's liberation activists are generally sympathetic to feminist standpoints.

Michael Alan Messner is an American sociologist. His main areas of research are gender and the sociology of sports. He is the author of several books, he gives public speeches and teaches on issues of gender-based violence, the lives of men and boys, and gender and sports.

Since the 19th century, men have taken part in significant cultural and political responses to feminism within each "wave" of the movement. This includes seeking to establish equal opportunities for women in a range of social relations, generally done through a "strategic leveraging" of male privilege. Feminist men have also argued alongside writers like bell hooks, however, that men's liberation from the socio-cultural constraints of sexism and gender roles is a necessary part of feminist activism and scholarship.

This is a list of topics related to the issue of masculism, men's liberation, the men's movement, and men's rights:

Masculism or masculinism may variously refer to ideologies and socio-political movements that seek to eliminate sexism against men, or increase adherence to or promotion of attributes regarded as typical of males. The terms may also refer to the men's rights movement or men's movement, as well as a type of antifeminism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminist movement</span> Series of political campaigns for reforms on feminist issues

The feminist movement, also known as the women's movement, refers to a series of social movements and political campaigns for radical and liberal reforms on women's issues created by the inequality between men and women. Such issues are women's liberation, reproductive rights, domestic violence, maternity leave, equal pay, women's suffrage, sexual harassment, and sexual violence. The movement's priorities have expanded since its beginning in the 1800s, and vary among nations and communities. Priorities range from opposition to female genital mutilation in one country, to opposition to the glass ceiling in another.

Michael Kaufman is a Canadian author, educator, and theorist focused on engaging men and boys to promote gender equality, end violence against women, and end self-destructive ideals of manhood. He co-founded the White Ribbon Campaign in 1991, the largest network of men working to ending violence against women worldwide. Michael Kaufman also co-founded the Men for Women's Choice campaign with Gordon Cleveland in 1989. He is a senior fellow of Instituto Promundo, an NGO based in Rio de Janeiro and Washington, D.C.

Rob Okun is a writer-editor, activist known for his strong advocacy for the pro-feminist men's movement. He is a former executive director of the Men's Resource Center for Change (MRC), one of the earliest men's centers in North America. Okun is the editor of Voice Male, the magazine chronicling masculinities and men's engagement in the gender equity movement. Editor of books on political art and profeminism, his work has appeared in numerous publications and websites including Women's eNews, Ms., Counterpunch, The Telegraph of London, San Diego Union-Tribune, and Dallas Morning News among others.

The concept of toxic masculinity is used in academic and media discussions to refer to those aspects of hegemonic masculinity that are socially destructive, such as misogyny, homophobia, and violent domination. These traits are considered "toxic" due in part to their promotion of violence, including sexual assault and domestic violence. Socialization of boys sometimes also normalizes violence, such as in the saying "boys will be boys" about bullying and aggression.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Flood, Michael (2007). "Men's Movement". In Flood, Michael; et al. (eds.). International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinities. Abingdon, UK; New York: Routledge. pp. 418–422. ISBN   978-0-415-33343-6.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Messner, Michael A. (June 1998). "The limits of "The Male Sex Role": an analysis of the men's liberation and men's rights movements' discourse". Gender & Society . 12 (3): 255–276. doi:10.1177/0891243298012003002. JSTOR   190285. S2CID   143890298. Pdf.
  3. ↑ Clatterbaugh, Kenneth (2007). "Men's Liberation". In Flood, Michael; Kegan Gardiner, Judith; Pease, Bob; et al. (eds.). International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinities . London & New York: Routledge. pp.  415–417. ISBN   978-0-415-33343-6.
  4. ↑ Gavanas, Anna (2004). Fatherhood Politics in the United States: Masculinity, Sexuality, Race, and Marriage. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 1996. ISBN   978-0-252-02884-7.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Wood, Julia T. (2008). "The Rhetorical Shaping of Gender: Men's Movements in America" (PDF). Gendered Lives: Communication, Gender, and Culture (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. pp. 82–103. ISBN   978-1-4282-2995-2.
  6. 1 2 3 Kimmel, Michael; Aronson, Amy, eds. (2004). "Profeminist Men". Men and Masculinities: A Social, Cultural, and Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 634–635. ISBN   978-1-57607-774-0.
  7. ↑ Nilsson, Bo (24 March 2020). "The #MeToo Movement: Men and Masculinity in Swedish News Media". The Journal of Men's Studies. 29: 8–25. doi: 10.1177/1060826520913613 .
  8. ↑ Jordan, Ana (7 February 2019). "Feminist Men's Movements: The White Ribbon Campaign (UK) and the Dilemmas of Feminist Men". Feminist Men's Movement: The White Ribbon Campaign (UK) and the Dilemmas of Feminist Men. pp. 123–163. doi:10.1057/978-1-137-31498-7_4. ISBN   978-0-230-36537-7. S2CID   198606517 . Retrieved 5 February 2021.
  9. ↑ Jordan, Ana (7 June 2019). Feminist Men's Movements: The White Ribbon Campaign (UK) and the Dilemmas of Feminist Men. pp. 123–163. doi:10.1057/978-1-137-31498-7_4. ISBN   978-0-230-36537-7. S2CID   198606517 . Retrieved 5 February 2021.
  10. 1 2 Flood, Michael (15–21 June 2019). "Gender equality: engaging men in change". Lancet. 393 (10189): 2386–2387. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)31295-4. PMID   31160105. S2CID   171092079.
  11. ↑ Okun, Rob (2014). "Men and Boys for Gender Justice".
  12. 1 2 Dasuptain, KumKum (2014). "Gender equality forum urges men to take responsibility on contraception".
  13. ↑ Henderson, Margaret (2006). Making Feminist Times: Remembering the Longest Revolution in Australia. Bern: Peter Lang. p. 217. ISBN   978-3-03910-847-3.
  14. ↑ Boyle, Karen (2010). Everyday pornography. New York: Routledge. p. 177. ISBN   978-0-415-54378-1.
  15. ↑ Roman, Leslie G.; Eyre, Linda, eds. (1997). Dangerous territories: struggles for difference and equality in education. New York: Routledge. p. 84. ISBN   978-0-415-91595-3.
  16. 1 2 Newton, Judith Lowder (2004). From Panthers to Promise Keepers: rethinking the men's movement. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 190–200. ISBN   978-0847691302.
  17. 1 2 3 Maddison, Sarah (1999). "Private Men, Public Anger: The Men's Rights Movement in Australia" (PDF). Journal of Interdisciplinary Gender Studies. 4 (2): 39–52. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 October 2013.
  18. ↑ Jordan, Ana (2013). "'Every Father is a Superhero to His Children': The Gendered Politics of the (Real) Fathers 4 Justice Campaign". Political Studies. 62: 83–98. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9248.2012.01008.x. S2CID   142721825.
  19. ↑ Crowley, Jocelyn Elise (2009). "Conflicted Membership: Women in Fathers' Rights Groups". Sociological Inquiry. 79 (3): 328–350. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.516.7982 . doi:10.1111/j.1475-682X.2009.00293.x.
  20. ↑ Gavanas, Anna (2004). "Fathers' Rights". In Kimmel, Michael; Aronson, Amy (eds.). Men and Masculinities: A Social, Cultural, and Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 289. ISBN   978-1-57607-774-0.
  21. ↑ Collier, Richard; Sheldon, Sally (eds.) (2006). Fathers' Rights Activism and Law Reform in Comparative Perspective . Hart Publishing. pp.  1–26. ISBN   978-1-84113-629-5.{{cite book}}: |first2= has generic name (help)
  22. ↑ Collier, R; Sheldon S (1 November 2006). "Unfamiliar territory: The issue of a father's rights and responsibilities covers more than just the media-highlighted subject of access to his children". The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on 20 May 2008. Retrieved 17 October 2007.
  23. ↑ Mason, Christopher P. (2006). Crossing into Manhood: A Men's Studies Curriculum. Youngstown, OH: Cambria Press. ISBN   978-1-934043-30-1.
  24. ↑ Goldberg, Stephanie B. (1995). "Make Room for Daddy". American Bar Association Journal. 83 (2): 48–52.
  25. ↑ Kimmel, Michael S. (2006). Manhood in America: A Cultural History (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 302. ISBN   978-0-19-518113-5.
  26. ↑ Berman, Judy (5 November 2009). "'Men's rights' groups go mainstream". Salon . Retrieved 31 May 2013.
  27. 1 2 Fox, John (2004). "How Men's Movement Participants View Each Other". The Journal of Men's Studies. 12 (2): 103–118. doi:10.3149/jms.1202.103. S2CID   144761642.
  28. ↑ Gill, Rosalind (2007). Gender and the Media. Cambridge: Polity Press. p. 30. ISBN   978-0-7456-1915-6.

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