Mummification in the Philippines

Last updated

Mummification was practiced in the Philippines only on those able to prove the loss of baby teeth. The baby teeth represented youth, losing them illustrated wisdom gained in their mouth. It also portrayed the journey of maturity. Dying without losing baby teeth was a sign of someone who never reached their full potential. Once you lose and grow your first grill, the second time you lose the teeth, it's time to go. That's because they were given a chance of proper dental hygiene. The caves containing the mummies were untouched until the 19th century. [1]

Contents

The heat and humidity of the islands made mummification difficult to perform in much of the Philippines. However, the widespread practice of mummification existed in Benguet and in the higher and cooler altitudes of the Cordilleras.

Studying the mummies reveals information about the rituals, beliefs, and social structure of the tribes that practiced mummification. For instance, mummification was intended for leaders and individuals that are from the higher social ranks of the tribe. [2]

Fire Mummies of Kabayan

In Northern Luzon, mummification is prevalent in Cordillera, specifically in Benguet, Ifugao, and Mountain Province. The most well-known example are the Fire Mummies in Kabayan, Benguet. There are over 200 remains located in Timbac cave which were made by the Ibaloi tribe between 1200 CE and 1500 CE. [3]

Kayaban mummification process

The process of Kayaban mummification is unique in that the internal organs are not removed from the corpse as opposed to other traditions of mummification where internal organs are removed, such as Egyptian mummification. Smoking the dead is reportedly practiced more recently by people in Papua New Guinea. [4] This difference has helped generate public interest in the Fire Mummies in the form of tourism to Timbac Cave [5] and various viral internet media on the topic.[ citation needed ] Under Presidential Decree No. 374., the mummy caves were named Philippine National Cultural Treasures. [6]

There is no written record of the Kabayan mummification process. However, a description of the process has been maintained in Ibaloi oral tradition, despite the cessation of Kayaban mummification occurring centuries ago. [7] The introduction of Christianity is believed to have stopped the practice of mummification, as it goes against Christian beliefs. Despite this, some groups in the Cordillera region still practice the drying of dead bodies, but not the full mummification process. [6]

Only the elite Ibaloi are mummified (the elite class is called Kadangyan) (Balangcod citation). The elite are people who owned vast expanses of land. The higher ranking the individual was within society, the longer the funerary practices and wake lasted before being put in their final resting place. Thus, mummification is a prestigious practice. [6]

The mummification process begins with oral administration of a hypertonic saline solution, commonly known as saltwater, to the dying tribe member. [3] Ingestion of the saline solution acts as a saline laxative by shifting extracellular fluid into the intestinal lumen via osmosis. This laxative effect flushes remaining feces from the colon while causing dehydration which is necessary to the mummification process. Flushing the colon results in a substantial depletion of the gut flora, thus impairing the onset of internal tissue-destructive bacterial enzymatic processes. Furthermore, tissue dehydration helps impair tissue destruction caused by beneficial bacteria which have colonized the person throughout their life [8] The process is identified as being parallel to the Egyptians who placed their corpses in a tub of salt to encourage dehydration. [9]

After death, the corpse is cleansed and rubbed with herbs. Tobacco smoke is then blown into the mouth of the corpse to help dehydrate internal organs and prevent insect infestation. A small fire is lit beside the corpse to enhance dehydration and prevent insect infestation, as insects are a vital component of normal corpse decomposition. The corpse is then secured in Fowler's position, via ceremonial scarves or blankets, to a "death chair". Community elders then remove the epidermis. Finally, juice from the leaves of native plants is applied to the freshly exposed dermis. [10] A fire is lit beneath the corpse to smoke it, while it sits on a death chair or sangadil. Guava branch smoke is preferred. The body fluids drain throughout the process and are collected in a jar (Balangcod citation). The smoking process can last days to months to even a year, depending on how esteemed the person was before their death. [6]

Following completion of the mummification ritual, the corpse is placed in a wooden coffin in the fetal position, sometimes placed in the same coffin as family members, which is buried in a cave. The corpse will then mummify over the course of months or years. [11] Those who look for them are still are able to find century old mummies with intact body parts, tattoos, etc., which means the means of preservation were very effective. [6]

Tattooing

Mummification in the Philippines provides evidence of tattoo practices in several regions of the Philippines. Many groups of the Igorot in the Cordillera region on the island of Luzon practiced tattooing for centuries. The Central Mountain Provincial Igorots used soot from the bottom of ollas (clay pots) as tattoo pigment. [12]

One method of tattooing used was the ‘puncture/cut and smear’ method, utilized by the Bontoc people. The bu-ma-fa’-tek (tattooist) would first draw the pattern on the skin with ink of soot and water, and then prick the skin with a cha-kay’-yum, and lastly, scatter soot into the open skin and manually work the pigment into the skin with their hands. [12]

The Ibaloi tribe of the Benguet province in Luzon is known for the tattooing found on its artificially mummified bodies. These tattoos include symmetric lined designs that represent elements such as earth and water and cover most of the body. Colors of these tattoos include blue-black as well as tattoos with red pigment. [12]

Herbs and Plants

In Kabayan, plants were used to preserve and smoke the bodies of the dead but were usually passed down as folklore rather than scientific research. Guava leaves were used to wash the body. Besudak, or embelia Philippinensis has similar properties to vinegar to help preserve meat, and thus in death embalming was used as an extract form to prevent decay. [6] Patani (Phaseolus Lunatus) and diwdiw (Ficus Nota) are antibacterial plants that are also placed around the body before the smoking period, in which guava leaves are kindled to help stop decay and maggots, as well as dry out the body. Tobacco is puffed into the deceased to preserve their organs, though this may be a newer idea after Spanish colonialism around 1500. Since the organs are not removed like in the case of the Egyptians, the dead body is made to ingest a saline solution to dehydrate the body, much like the tobacco smoke. [6]

Ursula Cariño Perez's research

Ursula Cariño Perez pieced together an intricate description of the process via interviews with Ibaloi members. Perez's unpublished doctoral dissertation is described in the following excerpts from Keith Gabriel's book Kabayan Mummies: A Glimpse of Benguet. [7]

"A large quantity of salt is dissolved in water and poured into the mouth of the deceased to prevent the early decomposition of the internal organs. The corpse is stripped and bathed with cold water. With the Kolebao (death blanket), the corpse in a sitting position is I-asal (tied to the death chair, that has high stilts and that is set in front of and beside the stairs of the house). Soon, the ends of a piece of cloth ban across the mouth is knotted at the back of the chair - further measure to keep the corpse stay on the chair for at least a week or for until such time fluid oozes from the swollen body; in this condition, the corpse is brought down and placed on the floor in a lying position. Close relatives peel off the epidermis or the outer skin all over the body - the process is called Duduan. After being peeled of its skin, the corpse is washed with cold water, covered with the same blanket, and then returned to the death chair. The process is followed by Begisan (deworming), that is removing the worms that infest the skin. The peeled off skin is placed in an earthen jar which is afterwards buried in the yard - this is dug later and placed beside the coffin during the burial. Beginning to dry, the corpse is applied allover with the juice of pounded guava and patani leaves. The process is repeated everyday until the body is totally dry. Regulated heat from a fire built below the death chair smokes the dead. When the body begins to shrink, the position of the corpse is changed by tying the legs and hands up to the chest in a crouched position. The legs and hands are tied. The string is removed only when both hands and legs are in their desired position. When dried, the corpse is placed under the sun during the day and smoked during the night. The juice of patani and guava leaves is applied twice a day until the body is hardened, intact and smoothly dried. For as long as two months or even one year, the body is alternately sun dried and smoked - interment time is decided by the nearest kin and after he has decided, carried to its final resting place in the cave of his ancestors or in another cave..."

Perez adds that "the technique of mummification through salting of the internal organs and application of the juice of guava and patani leaves and smoking and sun-drying lasted up to the 1850s, although it is said to have continued to the end of the century. The practice of mummification was slowly relegated to the past during the last decade of the nineteenth century because the process of mummification was very expensive and time consuming". According to Dr. Perez, "the process primarily depended on the social status of the dead, his wealth and most especially on his number of relatives in neighboring villages who could help shoulder the expenses during the rituals for months or years."

Perez writes further that "the early ancestors of the Ibaloys used a herb called atab to rub on the corpse's body. The leaves of said herb was pounded and extracted of its juice which was wiped on the body to harden it. Patani juice was likewise wiped all over the body to protect it from flies and other insects. Discoverers of the mummies found that the mummies had pieces of cloth plugged in their ears, mouths and nostrils to prevent flies from entering the body."

Informants of Perez said the practice of mummification among their ancestors during the seventeenth century has not been recorded but orally divulged from one generation to another. They claim that up to now, no scientific research has been made to determine the age of the mummies found in the caves of Kabayan, although most foreign anthropologists presume that the mummies are between 500 and 1000 years old.

Due to the mummification process of the dead, features, such as the Tatars, were preserved excellently. Appo Annu, one of the mummies found, had remarkably preserved tattoo details. Studies on the tattoos have been done, and one suggestion was that aside from being a tribal leader, he must have been a hunter. [9] Dr. Analyn Salvador-Amores, from the University of the Philippines-Baguio, states that the patterns were "kin-based and had social and collective meanings among the Ibaloy".

Site conservation

Many caves throughout the Kabayan region are said to contain Fire Mummies. However, human remains have only be discovered in a handful of these caves. It is suspected that Kabayan locals are unwilling to disclose the actual locations of other mummies due to widespread looting by private collectors and locals. It is alleged that some locals use the nails and fingers of Fire Mummies as talismans. [3]

The mummy of a cherished tribal icon, known as Apo Annu, was stolen from its original resting place in 1918. [4] The mummy was displayed as an exhibit in the Manila circus before being purchased by an antique collector. [13] The mummy was donated to the National Museum in 1984. The National Museum agreed to return the mummy to Nabalicong Village in 1999 under the condition that Benguet officials take steps to protect Apo Annu from potential theft. [4] These protective measures included installing an iron barrier to the opening of his burial cave and appropriation of government funds to maintain the site.

The return Apo Annu was of great cultural significance to the Ibaloi people. As such, an animal sacrificial ceremony was carried out to cleanse the village prior to returning Apo Annu back to his proper resting place. [4] The villagers believed that the return of Annu would bring good fortune and prosperity to the region by lifting an 80-year curse of earthquakes and poor crop yield in the region.

Looting and vandalism of Kabayan burial caves began in the early 1900s and peaked in the 1970s. [4] As of 1999, roughly 80 mummies are believed to be missing from the region. Due to the cultural significance of returning Ibaloi ancestors to their burial caves, the Philippine government and World Monument Watch began site conservation efforts in the 1990s.

The Kabayan Mummy Cave is proclaimed under Presidential Decree No. 327 (PD 327) as part of the Philippine National Cultural Treasures, which states that preservation, protection, and maintenance of the site be ensured for the future generation as a manifestation and ingenuity associated with the religious belief of the Ibaloi culture and tradition. [2]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mummy</span> Human or animal whose skin and organs have been preserved

A mummy is a dead human or an animal whose soft tissues and organs have been preserved by either intentional or accidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold, very low humidity, or lack of air, so that the recovered body does not decay further if kept in cool and dry conditions. Some authorities restrict the use of the term to bodies deliberately embalmed with chemicals, but the use of the word to cover accidentally desiccated bodies goes back to at least 1615 AD.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Benguet</span> Province in Cordillera, Philippines

Benguet, officially the Province of Benguet, is a landlocked province of the Philippines located in the southern tip of the Cordillera Administrative Region in the island of Luzon. Its capital is La Trinidad.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cordillera Administrative Region</span> Administrative region of the Philippines

The Cordillera Administrative Region, also known as the Cordillera Region and Cordillera, is an administrative region in the Philippines, situated within the island of Luzon. It is the only landlocked region in the insular country, bordered by the Ilocos Region to the west and southwest, and by the Cagayan Valley Region to the north, east, and southeast. It is the least populous region in the Philippines, with a population less than that of the city of Manila.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mount Pulag</span> Volcano in the Philippines

Mount Pulag is Luzon's highest peak at 2,928 metres (9,606 ft) above sea level, third-highest mountain in the Philippines, and the 26th-highest peak of an island on Earth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ibaloi people</span> Indigenous ethnic group found in Benguet Province of the northern Philippines

The Ibaloi are an indigenous ethnic group found in Benguet province of the northern Philippines. Ibaloi is derived from i-, a prefix signifying "pertaining to" and badoy or house, together then meaning "people who live in houses". The Ibaloi are one of the indigenous peoples collectively known as Igorot, who live in the cordillera central of Luzon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Igorot people</span> Ethnic group in the Philippines

The indigenous peoples of the Cordillera Mountain Range of northern Luzon, Philippines, often referred to by the exonym Igorot people, or more recently, as the Cordilleran peoples, are a ethnic group composed of nine main ethnolinguistic groups whose domains are in the Cordillera Mountain Range, altogether numbering about 1.5 million people in the early 21st century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient Egyptian funerary practices</span> Elaborate set of funerary practices

The ancient Egyptians had an elaborate set of funerary practices that they believed were necessary to ensure their immortality after death. These rituals included mummifying the body, casting magic spells, and burials with specific grave goods thought to be needed in the afterlife.

Disposal of human corpses, also called final disposition, is the practice and process of dealing with the remains of a deceased human being. Disposal methods may need to account for the fact that soft tissue will decompose relatively rapidly, while the skeleton will remain intact for thousands of years under certain conditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Buguias</span> Municipality in Benguet, Philippines

Buguias, officially the Municipality of Buguias,, is a 3rd class municipality in the province of Benguet, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 44,877 people. The municipality is home to the mummy of Apo Anno, one of the most revered and important folk hero in Benguet prior to Spanish arrival.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kabayan, Benguet</span> Municipality in Benguet, Philippines

Kabayan, officially the Municipality of Kabayan, is a 4th class municipality in the province of Benguet, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 15,806 people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agno River</span> River in Luzon, Philippines

The Agno River, also known as the Pangasinan River, is a river on the island of Luzon in the Philippines. Traversing the provinces of Benguet, Pangasinan, and Tarlac, it is one of the largest river systems in the country, with a drainage area of 5,952 square kilometres (2,298 sq mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinchorro mummies</span> Mummified remains of individuals from the South American Chinchorro culture

The Chinchorro mummies are mummified remains of individuals from the South American Chinchorro culture, found in what is now northern Chile. They are the oldest examples of artificially mummified human remains, having been buried up to two thousand years before the Egyptian mummies. The earliest mummy that has been found in Egypt dated around 3000 BCE, while the oldest anthropogenically modified Chinchorro mummy dates from around 5050 BCE.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of tattooing</span>

Tattooing has been practiced across the globe since at least Neolithic times, as evidenced by mummified preserved skin, ancient art and the archaeological record. Both ancient art and archaeological finds of possible tattoo tools suggest tattooing was practiced by the Upper Paleolithic period in Europe. However, direct evidence for tattooing on mummified human skin extends only to the 4th millennium BC. The oldest discovery of tattooed human skin to date is found on the body of Ötzi the Iceman, dating to between 3370 and 3100 BC. Other tattooed mummies have been recovered from at least 49 archaeological sites, including locations in Greenland, Alaska, Siberia, Mongolia, western China, Egypt, Sudan, the Philippines and the Andes. These include Amunet, Priestess of the Goddess Hathor from ancient Egypt, multiple mummies from Siberia including the Pazyryk culture of Russia and from several cultures throughout Pre-Columbian South America.

<i>Sokushinbutsu</i> Buddhist mummification

Sokushinbutsu are a kind of Buddhist mummy. In Japan the term refers to the practice of Buddhist monks observing asceticism to the point of death and entering mummification while alive. Although mummified monks are seen in a number of Buddhist countries, especially in South Asia where monks are mummified after dying of natural causes, it is only in Japan that monks are believed to have induced their own death by starvation.

The Fire Mummies of the Philippines, also known as the Kabayan Mummies, Benguet Mummies, or Ibaloi Mummies, are a group of mummies found along the mountain slopes of Kabayan, a town in the northern part of the Philippines. They were made from as early as 2000 BCE. Today, they remain in natural caves and a museum in Kabayan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Funeral practices and burial customs in the Philippines</span> Customs for the dead commonly practiced in the Philippines

During the Pre-Hispanic period the early Filipinos believed in a concept of life after death. This belief, which stemmed from indigenous ancestral veneration and was strengthened by strong family and community relations within tribes, prompted the Filipinos to create burial customs to honor the dead through prayers and rituals. Due to different cultures from various regions of the Philippines, many different burial practices have emerged. For example, the Manobos buried their dead in trees, the Ifugaos seated the corpse on a chari before it was brought to a cave and buried elsewhere. The most common forms of traditional burials are supine pits, earthenware jars, and log coffins, and have been a topic of interest among Philippine archaeologists since the early 20th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kankanaey people</span> Indigenous peoples of the Northern Philippines

The Kankanaey people are an Indigenous peoples of the Northern Philippines. They are part of the collective group of indigenous people known as the Igorot people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Muisca mummification</span>

The Muisca inhabited the Altiplano Cundiboyacense in the Colombian Andes before the arrival of the Spanish and were an advanced civilisation. They mummified the higher social class members of their society, mainly the zipas, zaques, caciques, priests and their families. The mummies would be placed in caves or in dedicated houses ("mausoleums") and were not buried.

Cañao or Kanyaw is a festival or a ceremony of the indigenous mountain people of Northern Luzon in the Philippines. It is a socio-religious ritual where chickens, pigs and/or carabaos are butchered as a sacrifice and feasted on. This is usually a thanksgiving to their god Kabunyan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Batok</span> Indigenous tattoos of the Philippines

Batok, batek, patik, or batik, among other names, are general terms for indigenous tattoos of the Philippines. Tattooing on both sexes was practiced by almost all ethnic groups of the Philippine Islands during the pre-colonial era. Like in other Austronesian groups, these tattoos were made traditionally with hafted tools tapped with a length of wood. Each ethnic group had specific terms and designs for tattoos, which are also often the same designs used in other artforms and decorations like in pottery and weaving. Tattoos range from being restricted only to certain parts of the body to covering the entire body. Tattoos were symbols of tribal identity and kinship, as well as bravery, beauty, and social or wealth status.

References

  1. ↑ "Kabayan Mummy Caves | World Monuments Fund". www.wmf.org. Retrieved 2015-12-01.
  2. 1 2 "Kabayan Mummy Burial Caves - UNESCO World Heritage Centre". whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2015-12-01.
  3. 1 2 3 "Mummies in the Philippines". SEAArch - The Southeast Asian Archaeology Newsblog. 2006-08-09. Retrieved 2015-12-01.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 "PHILIPPINES: MUMMY RETURNED TO NABALICONG VILLAGE".
  5. ↑ "Visiting the Timbac Burial Caves in Kabayan, Benguet" . Retrieved 13 March 2019.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Balanced, T.D. (2018). "A glimpse of the fire mummies of Kabayan, Benguet, Luzon, Philippines and the role of plants associated with the mummification process". Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 17 (2): 307–313.
  7. 1 2 Keith, Gabriel (1981). Kabayan Mummies: A Glimpse of Benguet. 16 Kisad Road, Baguio City: Baguio Printing & Publishing Company, Inc. pp. 10–11.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  8. ↑ Aufderheide, Arthur (2003). The Scientific Study of Mummies. Cambridge, UK: University Press, Cambridge. ISBN   978-0521177351.
  9. 1 2 "Origins of Benguet mummification". newsinfo.inquirer.net. 19 February 2013. Retrieved 2015-12-01.
  10. ↑ Piombino-Mascali, Dario; Salvador-Amores, Analyn. "Human mummification practices among the Igorot of North Luzon". www.academia.edu. Retrieved 2015-12-01.
  11. ↑ "Fire Mummies of the Philippines". Atlas Obscura. Retrieved 2015-12-01.
  12. 1 2 3 Poon, K.W. (2008). In Situ Chemical Analysis of Tattooing Inks and Pigments: Modern Organic and Traditional Pigments in Ancient Mummified Remains (PhD thesis). University of Western Australia.
  13. ↑ "Kabayan Mummies: Mummies Around the World @ Mummy Tombs". www.mummytombs.com. Retrieved 2015-12-01.

10. The Earlies Filipinos. Fr. Gabriel S. Casal. pp. 252–253

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.