Musketeer

Last updated
A South Indian musketeer, holding a musket; ca.1780 Tipu Sultan musketeer ca.1780.jpg
A South Indian musketeer, holding a musket; ca.1780

A Dutch musketeer, holding a musket; painting by Jacob van Gheyn in 1608 Jacob de Gheyn - Wapenhandelinge 4.jpg
A Dutch musketeer, holding a musket; painting by Jacob van Gheyn in 1608


A musketeer (French : mousquetaire) was a type of soldier equipped with a musket. Musketeers were an important part of early modern warfare, particularly in Europe, as they normally comprised the majority of their infantry. The musketeer was a precursor to the rifleman. Muskets were replaced by breech loading rifles as the almost universal firearm for modern armies during the period 1850 to 1870. The traditional designation of "musketeer" for an infantry private survived in the Imperial German Army until World War I.

Contents

Asia

Ming gunman using multi barreled repeating firearm Fang Xun Lei Chong Tu .png
Ming gunman using multi barreled repeating firearm
Musketeers in China from the Ming dynasty. Ming musketeers.jpg
Musketeers in China from the Ming dynasty.

Han East Asia

The hand cannon was invented in Song Dynasty China in the 12th century and was in widespread use there in the 13th century. It spread westward across Asia during the 14th century. Arquebus iers and musketeers were employed in the armies of the Ming (1368–1644) [1] and Qing dynasties (1644–1911). Zhao Shizhen's book of 1598 AD, the Shenqipu, contains illustrations of Ottoman Turkish and European musketeers together with detailed diagrams of their muskets. [2] There was also an illustration and description of how the Han people had adopted the Ottoman kneeling position when firing, while favoring the use of European-made muskets. [3] The Han people also built the first repeating firearm: several barrels behind a small wooden shield. The gunman would turn these barrels lighting each barrel with a slow match one by one. These weapons were most effective when fired from walls or high positions. Needham considered this weapon to be a "primitive machine-gun". [4] [5] [6]

Indian Sub-continent

A painting of a Mughal infantryman. A Mughal Infantryman.jpg
A painting of a Mughal infantryman.

Muskets were first introduced in Central-Asia under the Timurid dynasty, being used by the first Mughal emperor Babur in the first Battle of Panipat 1526 CE. The weapon became an integral part of Indian warfare from the 16th century onward, mainly from the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar. It was used as an effective defense against war elephants. The Mughals, Marathas, Rajputs, Sikhs and Ahoms made use of musketeers, firing from cover, to ambush opposing infantry, cavalry and elephants. Many Indian gunsmiths created matchlock muskets for the Mughal infantry [7] plus some combination weapons.

Europe

Spain

A tercio musketeer c. 1650 1650 - tercio arquebuse2.jpg
A tercio musketeer c. 1650

In the Spanish army, the tercio or the Spanish square was a mixed infantry formation that theoretically could number up to 3,000 pikemen, swordsmen and musketeers; although it was usually much smaller on the battlefield. It was effective in its era, capitalizing on the close-quarter impact of the pike combined with the long-range projectile capabilities of the musket. It resembled a loosely formed phalanx in function, but was far more flexible and deadly. Musketeers were developed by the Spanish during the Italian Wars so as to deal with the heavily armored French Gendarmes. An arquebus was not powerful enough to take down an armored knight, but a wall gun was. Spanish field commanders wanted to bring the firepower of a small wall gun onto the battlefield yet have it be as maneuverable as an arquebus. The solution was a bigger arquebus, but the additional weight made it extremely difficult to support the barrel during aiming and firing; hence, the musket rest, the precursor to the monopod. [8] Furthermore, musketeers were the first infantry to give up armor entirely. [9] Other than the musket rest, the musketeer's equipage was upgraded from a powder flask to a bandolier. Due to the difficulty in manipulating the musket rest and the strength needed to handle the heavier gun, musketeers were stronger men and paid more than the rest of the infantry. [10]

France

Uniforms of Musketeers of the Guard, 1660-1814 Mousquetaires du roi.jpg
Uniforms of Musketeers of the Guard, 1660–1814

The Musketeers of the Guard were a junior unit, initially of roughly company strength, of the military branch of the Royal Household. They were created in 1622 when Louis XIII furnished a company of light cavalry (the "carabiniers", created by Louis' father Henry IV) with muskets. Musketeers fought in battle both on foot as infantry and on horseback as dragoons. [11] At the Battle of Fontenoy in 1745 the King's Musketeers served as regular cavalry, charging British infantry with drawn swords.

As one of the junior units in the Royal Guard, the Musketeers were not closely linked to the royal family. Traditional bodyguard duties were in fact performed by the Garde du Corps and the Cent-suisses . Because of its later establishment, the Musketeers were open to the lower classes of French nobility or younger sons from noble families whose oldest sons served in the more prestigious Garde du Corps and Chevau-legers (Light Horse). The Musketeers, many of them still teenagers, soon gained a reputation for fighting spirit and unruly behaviour. [12]

Their high esprit de corps gained royal favor for the Musketeers, and they were frequently seen at court and in Paris. Shortly after their creation, Cardinal Richelieu created a bodyguard unit for himself. So as not to offend the king with a perceived sense of self-importance, Richelieu did not name them Garde du Corps like the king's personal guards, but rather Musketeers after the Kings' junior guard cavalry. This was the start of a bitter rivalry between the two corps of Musketeers. At the cardinal's death in 1642, the company passed to his successor Cardinal Mazarin. At Mazarin's death in 1661, the cardinal's Musketeers passed to Louis XIV, to the disgust of both the King's Musketeers and the Cardinal's Musketeers. The Musketeers were subsequently reorganized as a guard cavalry regiment of two companies. The King's Musketeers became the first company, popularly known as "Grey Musketeers" (mousquetaires gris), while the Cardinal's Musketeers became the second company, known as "Black Musketeers" (mousquetaires noirs) for riding grey and black horses, respectively. From their establishment, the musketeers wore blue cloak-like cassocks, lined with red and edged with silver embroidery. From 1688, the cassock was replaced by smaller soubrevestes or sleeveless coats in the same colours. In the early decades of the corps, the musketeers had worn civilian dress under their cassocks, according to personal taste and means, but in 1677 a scarlet uniform was adopted. [13]

D'Artagnan's monument in Paris Statue d'Artagnan Paris.jpg
D'Artagnan's monument in Paris

In terms of recruitment, entry into the Musketeers was much sought after by those sons of the aristocracy who did not possess the quarterings of nobility required for the Garde du Corps and Chevau-legers. [14] These two senior guard units were closed to all but the highest ranking and wealthy noble families. Accordingly for lesser gentry, or ambitious commoners, service in the Musketeers was the only way to join a mounted unit in the royal household and perhaps catch the King's eye. However, enlistment did require both letters of recommendation and evidence that a recruit had the family means to support the costs of service. These included the provision of horses, swords, clothing, a servant and equipment. Only the musket, the sleeveless soubreveste and the distinctive blue cassock were provided by the monarch. [15]

In 1776, the Musketeers were disbanded by Louis XVI for budgetary reasons. Following the first Bourbon Restoration, the Musketeers were reestablished on 6 July 1814 along with the other military units of the former royal household. These expensive and aristocratic regiments proved ineffective when Napoleon returned from Elba, mostly dispersing, though some accompanied Louis XVIII into brief exile. Following the second restoration of the monarchy, the Musketeers were finally disbanded on 31 December 1815. [16]

Decades later, starting in 1844, this group was the subject of the now-famous serial publication The Three Musketeers , first published in the magazine Le Siècle between March and July 1844. The author, Alexandre Dumas, père, based his work on the book Mémoires de Monsieur d'Artagnan, capitaine lieutenant de la première compagnie des Mousquetaires du Roi (Memoirs of Mister d'Artagnan, lieutenant captain of the first company of the King's Musketeers) by Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras (Cologne, 1700), [17] a fictionalized account of the life of Charles de Batz de Castelmore d'Artagnan (c. 1611–1673). Other musketeers served as inspirations for some of the other characters. Isaac de Porthau (1617–1712) was the inspiration for Dumas's character Porthos. Jean-Armand du Peyrer, Comte de Troisville (1598–1672), was fictionalized as Monsieur de Tréville.

Other Musketeers include:

Sweden

Thanks to the reforms of Gustav II Adolf, the Swedish Army brought to maturity the new style of fighting that made Sweden into a great power in the 17th century. This style of fighting became the new standard throughout Europe and its colonies in the latter stages of musket dominated warfare. Manuals based on Gustav's own revolutionised the training and tactics of western armies.[ citation needed ]

Britain

A heraldic supporter: a musketeer of the Honourable Artillery Company, in sand, 19th century An heraldic supporter. A Pikeman of the Honourable Artillery Company, in sand.jpg
A heraldic supporter: a musketeer of the Honourable Artillery Company, in sand, 19th century

The iconic musket carrying "redcoat" of the British Empire was the staple unit in the British armies that created one of the largest empires in history. The British infantryman was equipped with the .75 calibre Land Pattern Musket, or Brown Bess. He was well trained by the standards of the time, training with live ammunition. A fully trained redcoat could fire four times a minute. This, combined with the technique of firing by companies (a method wherein blocks of men fired smaller volleys in succession, creating a wave of fire down the front of the regiment), made it possible for the British musketeer to win pitched battles, often against superior numbers.

The term "musketeer" was rarely used in the titles of regiments. Examples include the 106th Regiment of Foot (Black Musqueteers), the 110th Regiment of Foot (Queen's Royal Musqueteers) and the 112th Regiment of Foot (King's Royal Musqueteers), all raised and disbanded in the 1760s.

The musket was withdrawn from service with the British Army in 1854, replaced by the muzzle-loading Minié rifle, which had an accurate range of over three times that of the Brown Bess which it replaced. [18]

Eurasia

Ottoman Empire

An illustration of Janissaries. Knotel-Janissaries.jpg
An illustration of Janissaries.

The Janissary corps of the Ottoman army were using matchlock muskets as early as the 1440s. [19] The Ottoman Empire, centering on Turkey and extending into Balkans, Arabia and North Africa used muskets to conquer Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and were one of the earliest users of muskets in a military conflict. It also utilized large cannons, including the Great Turkish Bombard.

Russia

Streltsy (Russian : Стрельцы, sing. strelets, стрелец, literally "shooter"; often translated as "musketeer", but more properly "harquebusier") were the units of Russian guardsmen l from the 16th to the early 18th centuries, armed with firearms and bardiches. They are also collectively known as Strelets Troops (Стрелецкое Войско).

Streltsy in 1674 01 108 Book illustrations of Historical description of the clothes and weapons of Russian troops.jpg
Streltsy in 1674

The first streltsy units were created by Ivan the Terrible sometime between 1545 and 1550 and armed with the arquebus. They first saw combat at the Siege of Kazan in 1552. Military service in this unit became lifelong and hereditary. The bearded strelsty were organized into regiments, each with a long coat ( kaftan ) and pointed cloth hat of a distinctive colour. By 1680, there were 20 regiments of Moscow streltsy totaling 20,048 men and comprising about 12 per cent of the total army [20] (along with Cossacks, militia and an increasing number of regular soldiers). In addition, there were significant numbers of frontier and garrison streltsy serving outside Moscow, although these were less formally drilled and equipped. [21]

The Muscovite government was chronically short of cash so that the streltsy were often not paid well. While "entitled" to something like four rubles a year in the 1550s, they were often allowed to farm or trade in order to supplement their incomes. Textiles for clothing and foodstuffs were sometimes issued as part of their pay. A commander of one hundred musketeers (sotnik) received up to 20 roubles a year and a regimental head (streletski golova) between 30 and 60. [22]

In the late 17th century, the Streltsy of Moscow began to actively participate in a struggle for power between different government groups, supporting dissidents and showing hostility towards any foreign innovations. [23]

After the fall of Sophia Alekseyevna in 1689, the government of Peter the Great engaged in a process of gradual limitation of the streltsy's military and political influence. In order to counter their power, Peter began to raise a new regular army, still armed with muskets but disciplined, uniformed and organised along West European lines. In spite of these measures, the streltsy revolted yet again while Peter was on his Great Embassy in Europe. The four regiments involved were disbanded and 1,200 of the mutineers were executed. The remainder were exiled, had their property confiscated and were banned from future military employment. [24] The entire corps was technically abolished in 1689; however, after having suffered a defeat at Narva in 1700, the government retained some streltsy units in service. [25]

Gradually, the streltsy were incorporated into the regular army. At the same time, the Tsarist government started to disband the Municipal Streltsy. Liquidation of the last streltsy units (by then social rather than military groups) was finally completed by 1728. [26]

The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments of the Imperial Guard replaced the streltsy as the political and military force closest to the tsar. [27]

Africa

A small musketeer force was authorized in Kongo mostly made up of the mestiço , who were mixed race Congolese with Portuguese ancestry. Over 300 musketeers served in the Congo army against the Portuguese at the Battle of Mbwila in 1665. [28] [29] Musketeers were employed into the Wydah army from 1680 AD but they did not completely replace the spearmen, swordsmen and archers. In war, the Musketeers were first to go into action as they fought in the front ranks of the army. [30]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cavalry</span> Soldiers or warriors fighting from horseback

Historically, cavalry are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Until the 20th century cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry in the roles of reconnaissance, screening, and skirmishing in many armies, or as heavy cavalry for decisive shock attacks in other armies. An individual soldier in the cavalry is known by a number of designations depending on era and tactics, such as a cavalryman, horseman, trooper, cataphract, knight, drabant, hussar, uhlan, mamluk, cuirassier, lancer, dragoon, or horse archer. The designation of cavalry was not usually given to any military forces that used other animals for mounts, such as camels or elephants. Infantry who moved on horseback, but dismounted to fight on foot, were known in the early 17th to the early 18th century as dragoons, a class of mounted infantry which in most armies later evolved into standard cavalry while retaining their historic designation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grenadier</span> Type of infantry soldier, now mostly unused

A grenadier was historically an assault-specialist soldier who threw hand grenades in siege operation battles. The distinct combat function of the grenadier was established in the mid-17th century, when grenadiers were recruited from among the strongest and largest soldiers. By the 18th century, the grenadier dedicated to throwing hand grenades had become a less necessary specialist, yet in battle, the grenadiers were the physically robust soldiers who led vanguard assaults, such as storming fortifications in the course of siege warfare.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charles de Batz de Castelmore d'Artagnan</span> French captain of musketeers (1611–1673)

Charles de Batz de Castelmore, also known as d'Artagnan and later Count d'Artagnan, was a French Musketeer who served Louis XIV as captain of the Musketeers of the Guard. He died at the siege of Maastricht in the Franco-Dutch War. A fictionalised account of his life by Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras formed the basis for the d'Artagnan Romances of Alexandre Dumas père, most famously including The Three Musketeers (1844). The heavily fictionalised version of d'Artagnan featured in Dumas' works and their subsequent screen adaptations is now far more widely known than the real historical figure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Streltsy</span> Military unit

The streltsy were the units of Russian firearm infantry from the 16th century to the early 18th century and also a social stratum, from which personnel for streltsy troops were traditionally recruited. They are also collectively known as streletskoye voysko. These infantry troops reinforced feudal levy horsemen or pomestnoye voysko. The first units were established by Ivan the Terrible as part of the first standing army in Russia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Light infantry</span> Type of mobile infantry

Light infantry refers to certain types of lightly-equipped infantry throughout history. They have a more mobile or fluid function than other types of infantry, such as heavy infantry or line infantry. Historically, light infantry often fought as scouts, raiders, and skirmishers. These are loose formations that fight ahead of the main army to harass, delay, disrupt supply lines, engage the enemy's own skirmishing forces, and generally "soften up" an enemy before the main battle. Light infantrymen were also often responsible for screening the main body of a military formation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sepoy</span> Designation given to a South Asian soldier

Sepoy, related to sipahi, is a term denoting professional Indian infantryman, traditionally armed with a musket, in the armies of the Mughal Empire and the Maratha Army.

<i>Troupes coloniales</i> Military unit

The Troupes coloniales or Armée coloniale, commonly called La Coloniale, were the colonial troops of the French colonial empire from 1900 until 1961. From 1822 to 1900 these troops were designated Troupes de marine, and in 1961 they readopted this name. They were recruited from mainland France and from the French settler as well as indigenous populations of the empire. This force played a substantial role in the conquest of the empire, in World War I, World War II, the First Indochina War and the Algerian War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Line infantry</span> Type of light infantry arranged in lines, now obsolete

Line infantry was the type of infantry that formed the bulk of most European land armies from the mid-17th century to the mid-19th century. Maurice of Nassau and Gustavus Adolphus are generally regarded as its pioneers, while Turenne and Montecuccoli are closely associated with the post-1648 development of linear infantry tactics. For both battle and parade drill, it consisted of two to four ranks of foot soldiers drawn up side by side in rigid alignment, and thereby maximizing the effect of their firepower. By extension, the term came to be applied to the regular regiments "of the line" as opposed to light infantry, skirmishers, militia, support personnel, plus some other special categories of infantry not focused on heavy front line combat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Canadian Voltigeurs</span> Military unit

The Canadian Voltigeurs were a light infantry unit, raised in Lower Canada in 1812, that fought in the War of 1812 between Britain and the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Musketeers of the Guard</span> Royal guard of the King of France 1622-1816

The Musketeers of the military household of the King of France, also known as the Musketeers of the Guard or King's Musketeers, were an elite fighting company of the military branch of the Maison du Roi, the royal household of the French monarchy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Duke of Lauzun</span> French peerage created in 1692

The title of Duc de Lauzun was a French peerage created in 1692 for Antoine Nompar de Caumont under influence of Mary of Modena. All dukes were marshals of France or renowned generals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scottish Guards (France)</span> Personal bodygards to the French monarchy

The Scottish Guards was a bodyguard unit founded in 1418 by the Valois Charles VII of France, to be personal bodyguards to the French monarchy. They were assimilated into the Maison du Roi and later formed the first company of the Garde du Corps du Roi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agénois Regiment</span> Military unit

The Régiment d'Agenois was a French infantry regiment formed under the Ancien Régime in 1595. It participated in the American War of Independence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Walloon Guards</span> Former troop of Belgians in the Spanish army

The Walloon Guards were an infantry corps recruited for the Spanish Army in the region now known as Belgium, mainly from Catholic Wallonia. As foreign troops without direct ties amongst the Spanish population, the Walloons were often tasked with the maintenance of public order, eventually being incorporated as a regiment of the Spanish Royal Guard.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maison militaire du roi de France</span> Military branch of the French royal household

The maison militaire du roi de France, in English the military household of the king of France, was the military part of the French royal household or Maison du Roi under the Ancien Régime. The term only appeared in 1671, though such a gathering of units pre-dates this. Like the rest of the royal household, the military household was under the authority of the Secretary of State for the Maison du Roi. Still, it depended on the ordinaire des guerres for its budget. Under Louis XIV, these two officers of state were given joint command of the military household.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Belgian Legion</span> Military unit

Several military units have been known as the Belgian Legion. The term "Belgian Legion" can refer to Belgian volunteers who served in the French Revolutionary Wars, Napoleonic Wars, Revolutions of 1848 and, more commonly, the Mexico Expedition of 1867.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anglo-Portuguese Army</span> Combined English and Portuguese army during the Peninsular War

The Anglo-Portuguese Army was the combined British and Portuguese army that participated in the Peninsular War, under the command of Arthur Wellesley. The Army is also referred to as the British-Portuguese Army and, in Portuguese, as the Exército Anglo-Luso or the Exército Anglo-Português.

The 1st Regiment Greek Light Infantry (1810–12) was a light infantry regiment, founded as a local establishment in British service consisting mostly of Greek and Albanian enlisted men and Greek and British officers that served during the Napoleonic Wars. Later it became a regular British Army regiment as the 1st Greek Light Infantry (1812–16). It had no official association with the modern state of Greece or the Filiki Eteria or any Greek War of Independence groups; however, several future leaders of the War of Independence fought in its ranks, as did a number of rank-and-file klephts and armatoloi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Legion of Light Troops</span> Military unit

The Legion of Light Troops, also known as the Light Legion or Legion of Alorna was military unit in the Portuguese Army, created in August 1796.

"New order regiments"(Russian: "Полки иноземного строя"), also known in the literature as "foreign formation regiments", were professional military units formed in Russian Tsardom in the 17th century, armed and trained in line with the Western European armies.

References

  1. ↑ Chase 2003, p. 141.
  2. ↑ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 447–454.
  3. ↑ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 449–452.
  4. ↑ Joseph Needham; Gwei-Djen Lu; Ling Wang (1987). Joseph Needham (ed.). Science and civilisation in China, Volume 5, Part 7 (reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 254. ISBN   0-521-30358-3. makes its appearance, but now alongside all kinds of more modern things, such as mobile armoured shields for field-guns, bullet-moulds and muskets, and even a kind of primitive machine-gun. b The fire-lance was not yet quite dead
  5. ↑ Derk Bodde (1987). Charles Le Blanc; Susan Blader (eds.). Chinese ideas about nature and society: studies in honour of Derk Bodde. Hong Kong University Press. p. 326. ISBN   962-209-188-1. Once again the li hua ch'iang makes its appearance, but now alongside all kinds of more modern things, such as ... for field-guns, bullet moulds, and muskets, and even a kind of primitive machine- gun.96 The fire-lance was not yet quite
  6. ↑ DK (2 October 2006). Weapon: A Visual History of Arms and Armor. DK Publishing. p. 100. ISBN   978-0-7566-4219-8.
  7. ↑ Nicolle, David (25 November 1993). The French Army 1914-18. Bloomsbury USA. pp. 12, 16. ISBN   1-85532-344-3.
  8. ↑ Marek y Villarino de Brugge, Don André (2022). Discourse on Spanish Musketry in the Late 16th Century (Revised ed.). Norwalk. p. 19. ISBN   979-8429737126.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  9. ↑ Marek y Villarino de Brugge, Don André (2022). Discourse on Spanish Musketry in the Late 16th Century (Revised ed.). Norwalk. p. 43. ISBN   979-8429737126.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  10. ↑ Parker, Geoffrey (1972). The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road. Cambridge University Press. p. 274.
  11. ↑ Chartrand, Rene (2013). French Musketeer 1622–1775. Osprey Publishing. pp. 8, 15. ISBN   9781780968612.
  12. ↑ Chartrand, Rene (23 July 2013). French Musketeer 1622–1775. Bloomsbury USA. pp. 22–23. ISBN   978-1-78096-861-2.
  13. ↑ Chartrand, Rene (2013). French Musketeer 1622–1775. Osprey Publishing. p. 40. ISBN   9781780968612.
  14. ↑ Chartrand, Rene (23 July 2013). French Musketeer 1622–1775. Bloomsbury USA. p. 18. ISBN   978-1-78096-861-2.
  15. ↑ Chartrand, Rene (23 July 2013). French Musketeer 1622–1775. Bloomsbury USA. pp. 23, 28. ISBN   978-1-78096-861-2.
  16. ↑ Chartrand, Rene (23 July 2013). French Musketeer 1622–1775. Bloomsbury USA. p. 23. ISBN   978-1-78096-861-2.
  17. ↑ Chartrand, Rene (23 July 2013). French Musketeer 1622–1775. Bloomsbury USA. pp. 6–7. ISBN   978-1-78096-861-2.
  18. ↑ R. M. Barnes, A History of the Regiments & Uniforms of the British Army, Sphere Books, p. 95.
  19. ↑ Nicolle, David (1995). The Janissaries . Osprey. pp.  22. ISBN   1-85532-413-X.
  20. ↑ Shpakovsky, V. (31 January 2006). Armies of Ivan the Terrible . Bloomsbury USA. p.  8. ISBN   1-84176-925-8.
  21. ↑ Shpakovsky, V. (31 January 2006). Armies of Ivan the Terrible . Bloomsbury USA. p.  9. ISBN   1-84176-925-8.
  22. ↑ Shpakovsky, V. (31 January 2006). Armies of Ivan the Terrible . Bloomsbury USA. pp.  19& 21. ISBN   1-84176-925-8.
  23. ↑ Konstam, Angus (29 July 1993). Peter the Great's Army 1: Infantry . p.  9. ISBN   1-85532-315-X.
  24. ↑ Middleton, Chris (1987). Winds of Revolution. p. 22. ISBN   978-0809464586.
  25. ↑ Konstam, Angus (29 July 1993). Peter the Great's Army 1: Infantry . pp.  9. ISBN   1-85532-315-X.
  26. ↑ Shpakovsky, V. (31 January 2006). Armies of Ivan the Terrible . Bloomsbury USA. p.  35. ISBN   1-84176-925-8.
  27. ↑ Konstam, Angus (1993). Peter the Great's Army 1: Infantry . p.  11&12. ISBN   1-85532-315-X.
  28. ↑ Thornton, John K. (1991). "African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion". The American Historical Review . 96 (4): 1101–1113. doi:10.2307/2164997. JSTOR   2164997.
  29. ↑ Thornton, John K. (1988). "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680". Comparative Studies in Society and History . 30 (2): 360–378. doi:10.1017/S0010417500015231. S2CID   144152478.
  30. ↑ Kea, R. A. (1971). "Firearms and Warfare on the Gold and Slave Coasts from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Centuries". The Journal of African History. 12 (2): 185–213. doi:10.1017/S002185370001063X. ISSN   0021-8537. JSTOR   180879. S2CID   163027192.

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.