Navy of the Independent State of Croatia

Last updated • 9 min readFrom Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Navy of the Independent State of Croatia
Ratna Mornarica Nezavisne Države Hrvatske
Yugoslav torpedo boat T3.jpg
A 250t-class torpedo boat similar to T7, which was operated by the RMNDH in the Adriatic Sea between September 1943 and June 1944 when she was sunk
Active1941–1944
DisbandedMay 1945
CountryFlag of Independent State of Croatia.svg  Independent State of Croatia
Type Navy
Size1,262 personnel (1943)
Part of Croatian Armed Forces
Headquarters Zagreb, Independent State of Croatia
Engagements World War II
Commanders
Notable
commanders
Đuro Jakčin
Edgar Angeli
Nikola Steinfl
Insignia
Naval Ensign (1941–1944) Naval Ensign of the Independent State of Croatia.svg
Naval Ensign (1944–1945) War flag of Croatia (1941-1945).svg

The Navy of the Independent State of Croatia (Croatian : Ratna Mornarica Nezavisne Države Hrvatske, RMNDH), was the navy of the Independent State of Croatia (Croatian: Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, NDH), an Axis puppet state controlled by the fascist Ustaše party. The NDH was created from parts of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia on 10 April 1941, four days after the World War II invasion of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers commenced. The RMNDH consisted of two commands, the Coast and Maritime Traffic Command, and the River and River Traffic Command, and had its headquarters in the NDH capital, Zagreb. The Coast and Maritime Traffic Command consisted of three naval commands along the Adriatic coast, which were each divided into a number of naval districts. The naval districts consisted mainly of naval and weather stations, and were only responsible for coast guard and customs duties. The River and River Traffic Command consisted of seven river stations, a naval infantry battalion, and a River Command Flotilla built around two former Yugoslav river monitors, which had been scuttled during the invasion but subsequently refloated.

Contents

The RMNDH was only a small part of the armed forces of the NDH, largely due to restrictions imposed by Italy under the Treaties of Rome. To avoid these limitations, the Germans raised the Croatian Naval Legion which fought as part of the German Navy in the Black Sea campaign between 1941 and 1944. After the Italian capitulation in September 1943, the Germans transferred several captured Italian vessels to the RMNDH, including the light cruiser Dalmacija (renamed Zniam), the former Yugoslav torpedo boat T7, and the Malinska-class mining tender Mosor. All of the significant assets had been lost by December 1944 when the remaining personnel were assigned to duties ashore to circumvent their defection to the Yugoslav Partisans. The RMNDH was disbanded in May 1945 with the collapse and defeat of the NDH.

Background

On 10 April 1941, four days after the invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers commenced, an extreme Croat nationalist and fascist Ustaše -led puppet state was created. Known as the Independent State of Croatia (often called the NDH, from the Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska), it combined almost all of modern-day Croatia, all of modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of modern-day Serbia into an "Italian-German quasi-protectorate". [1] Germany and Italy quickly agreed on their division of responsibility within the NDH, and effectively occupied the entirety of the country, but the Germans retained the upper hand and control over the most industrially and agriculturally productive parts of the puppet state, despite assuring the Italians that the NDH was in their sphere of influence. The Germans gradually increased their domination over the NDH as time passed, while the Italians were unpopular among the Croat population because they annexed large parts of Croatian territory, including much of the Adriatic coastline. As the weaker Axis partner, Italy was unable to challenge Germany's grip on the NDH, and the Ustaše-led Croats had to accept whatever conditions were imposed on them. [2] By long-standing agreement between the Ustaše leadership and Italy that preceded the outbreak of World War II, if the Croats ceded the Croatian coast to them, the Italians would provide for its protection. [3]

The Royal Yugoslav Navy, targeted heavily by air attacks, conducted few combat operations during the invasion, [4] [5] and the Italians captured most of its ships in port, [5] losing one destroyer scuttled by its crew. One submarine and two motor torpedo boats also escaped to join the Allied cause. The Italians took over the bulk of the remaining seagoing ships and employed them in various roles. [6] One exception was the Yugoslav minelayer Zmaj which sailed to Split in an attempt to join the nascent NDH navy, but was captured at Split by the Italians on 17 April and handed over to the Germans soon after. [7]

Formation

The Navy of the Independent State of Croatia (Croatian: Ratna Mornarica Nezavisne Države Hrvatske, RMNDH) was established by the Law on the Establishment of the Army and Navy issued on the same day as the NDH was established by the Ustaše deputy leader and retired Austro-Hungarian Lieutenant Colonel (later Marshal and Commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the NDH) Slavko Kvaternik, with the approval of the German authorities. The task of the navy, along with the army, was to defend the new state against both foreign and domestic enemies. [8] The Italians opposed the formation of a navy by the NDH, as they considered the Adriatic to be Mare Nostrum (Our Sea). The Germans supported the Italians in this, so the development of the RMNDH along the Adriatic coast was initially very restricted. [9] On 18 May 1941, the Agreement on Military Matters Pertaining to Coastal Areas was signed in Rome the second of three Treaties of Rome signed that day. In this bilateral treaty with Italy, the NDH agreed to demilitarize the coastal area entirely, restricting itself to civil administration there. It also agreed not to create any naval units in the Adriatic except for policing and customs purposes. [10] By July 1941, the RMNDH consisted of two commands, the Coast and Maritime Traffic Command, and the River and River Traffic Command, and had its headquarters in the NDH capital, Zagreb. [11]

The Coast and Maritime Traffic Command comprised three naval commands for the northern, central and southern sections of the Adriatic coast, headquartered at Crikvenica (later Sušak), Makarska (later Split) and Dubrovnik respectively. These commands were further divided into naval districts; North Adriatic Naval Command was divided into the Kraljevica and Senj Naval Districts, Central Adriatic Naval Command comprised the Omiš, Supertar, Makarska, Metković and Hvar Naval Districts, and South Adriatic Naval Command consisted of the Trpanj, Orebić and Dubrovnik Naval Districts. The naval districts consisted mainly of naval and weather stations, and were only responsible for coast guard and customs duties. [11] [12]

The former Yugoslav monitor Morava was renamed Bosna and was part of the River Command Flotilla Yugoslav monitor Morava.jpg
The former Yugoslav monitor Morava was renamed Bosna and was part of the River Command Flotilla

The River and River Traffic Command was headquartered in Sisak, at the confluence of the Kupa, Sava, and Odra rivers about 57 kilometres (35 mi) southeast of Zagreb. It consisted of seven river stations at Sisak, Brod na Savi, Hrvatska Mitrovica, Zemun, Petrovaradin, Vukovar and Osijek, and a naval infantry battalion based at Zemun (later Zagreb). The River Command Flotilla, headquartered in Zemun, was also part of River and River Traffic Command. It comprised: two former Royal Yugoslav Navy river monitors, Sava and Bosna, which had been scuttled during the invasion and later recovered; two river gunboats, Ustaša and Bosut; two river minelayers, Zagreb and Zrinski; and six motor boats. The flotilla had a flagship, the river tugboat Vrbas, and two patrol groups, each consisting of one monitor, one gunboat, one minelayer and three motor boats. [11]

Re-organisation

Cover of Hrvatski krugoval magazine from 17 October 1943 featuring a member of the RMNDH. Hrvatski krugoval mornar.jpg
Cover of Hrvatski krugoval magazine from 17 October 1943 featuring a member of the RMNDH.

The Law Decree on the Armed Forces of 18 March 1942 re-organised the RMNDH as a branch of the Croatian Home Guard (Croatian: Domobrani). The RMNDH was always a small part of the armed forces, numbering only 1,262 men in September 1943. [13] After the Italian capitulation in 1943, the Germans recovered the former Yugoslav torpedo boat T7 from the Italians and handed it over to the RMNDH under her Yugoslav designation. Her crew came under the influence of the Yugoslav Partisans, and were preparing to mutiny when the Germans intervened. [14] [15] Two more former Yugoslav vessels were captured from the Italians and handed over to the RMNDH by the Germans; the light cruiser Dalmacija (renamed Zniam), and the Malinska-class mining tender Mosor. Croatian crews also served on German-operated vessels, for example twenty Croats served aboard the minelayer Kiebitz, ex-Italian auxiliary cruiser Ramb III . [16]

Zniam was stranded on 19 December 1943 and was torpedoed by Royal Navy Motor Torpedo Boats (MTBs) two days later. On 24 June 1944, T7 and two German S-boats were sailing between Šibenik and Rijeka, protecting German sea supply routes along the Adriatic, when they were attacked by three Royal Navy MTBs near the island of Kukuljari, south of Murter Island. The MTBs fired two torpedoes at T7, but missed, so they closed and engaged her with their guns, setting her ablaze. She was beached, and 21 crew were rescued by the MTBs. The British crews later examined the wreck, capturing five more crew, then destroyed her with demolition charges. [17] The river monitor Bosna struck a mine and sank in the same month, [18] and Sava was scuttled on 8 September 1944 when her crew deserted to the Partisans. [19] Mosor was stranded on Ist Island near Zadar on 31 December 1944, and remained there until after the end of the war. [20] By this stage, the RMNDH consisted of a flotilla of small coastal craft stationed at Rijeka. The entire flotilla tried to desert to the Partisans in December 1944, but all but one craft (carrying the commander of the flotilla) was prevented from doing so by the Germans. The Germans brought the naval personnel to Zagreb and used them to form a unit for ground combat, and disarmed the remaining vessels. [21] Nevertheless, the RMNDH continued to exist on paper and had a designated commander until it was disbanded at the end of the war. [12]

Croatian Naval Legion

During the war, a unit known as the Croatian Naval Legion (Croatian: Hrvatska pomorska legija) fought as part of the German Navy in the Black Sea campaign under the command of Kapetan korvete (Commander) Andro Vrkljan and later Kapetan fregate (Captain) Stjepan Rumenović. [12] The purpose of posting a naval contingent on the Black Sea was to evade the prohibitions imposed on the RMNDH by the second Treaty of Rome. [22] The Croatian Government hoped that its personnel could gain experience there and later serve as the core of a naval force in the Adriatic. [23] The unit did not have any ships upon its arrival in the Sea of Azov. [22] It managed to scrounge up 47 damaged or abandoned fishing vessels, mostly sailing ships, and hired local Russian and Ukrainian sailors to help man them. They patrolled a coastal sector of the Sea of Azov, [24] and the Legion eventually reached a strength of 1,000 officers and men as the 23rd Minesweeping Flotilla. [12] On 24 September 1942, the Poglavnik (leader) of the NDH, Ante Pavelić, visited Legion headquarters, where he reached an agreement with the Germans to train and equip a flotilla that would undertake anti-submarine patrols. [24] In 1943, a coastal artillery battery was added to the Legion. Following the capitulation of Italy in September 1943, and Axis reverses on the Eastern Front, the Croatian Naval Legion returned to the NDH in May 1944 as a Trieste-based torpedo boat flotilla, part of the German 11th Escort Flotilla. The Germans disbanded the Legion at the same time as the crew of the RMNDH were brought ashore to prevent them from defecting with their vessels to the Partisans. [12]

Three officers commanded the RMNDH: [12]

See also

Footnotes

  1. Tomasevich 2001, pp. 52–53, 272.
  2. Tomasevich 2001, pp. 233–234.
  3. Tomasevich 2001, p. 31.
  4. Shores, Cull & Malizia 1987, pp. 205–207, 213–218, 220–224.
  5. 1 2 Whitely 2001, p. 312.
  6. Chesneau 1980, pp. 357–358.
  7. Freivogel & Rastelli 2015, p. 97.
  8. Tomasevich 2001, p. 417.
  9. Chesneau 1980, p. 356.
  10. Tomasevich 2001, p. 237 (with map on p. 236).
  11. 1 2 3 Niehorster 2013.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Thomas & Mikulan 1995, p. 18.
  13. Tomasevich 2001, pp. 423–424.
  14. Gardiner 1985, p. 339.
  15. Chesneau 1980, p. 357.
  16. Chesneau 1980, p. 359.
  17. Paterson 2015, p. 223.
  18. Naval Records Club 1968, p. 333.
  19. Naval Records Club 1965, p. 44.
  20. Chesneau 1980, p. 358.
  21. Tomasevich 2001, p. 431.
  22. 1 2 Müller 2012, p. 98.
  23. Brnardic 2016, p. 12.
  24. 1 2 Müller 2012, p. 100.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ante Pavelić</span> Croatian fascist politician and dictator

Ante Pavelić was a Croatian politician who founded and headed the fascist ultranationalist organization known as the Ustaše in 1929 and was dictator of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), a fascist puppet state built out of parts of occupied Yugoslavia by the authorities of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, from 1941 to 1945. Pavelić and the Ustaše persecuted many racial minorities and political opponents in the NDH during the war, including Serbs, Jews, Romani, and anti-fascists, becoming one of the key figures of the genocide of Serbs, the Porajmos and the Holocaust in the NDH.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Independent State of Croatia</span> Puppet state of Nazi Germany and protectorate of Fascist Italy within occupied Yugoslavia

The Independent State of Croatia was a World War II–era puppet state of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. It was established in parts of occupied Yugoslavia on 10 April 1941, after the invasion by the Axis powers. Its territory consisted mostly of modern-day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as some parts of modern-day Serbia and Slovenia, but also excluded many Croat-populated areas in Dalmatia, Istria, and Međimurje regions.

Velimir Škorpik was a Croatian and Yugoslav Partisan naval officer and commander of several early Partisan naval units. After graduating from the Naval Academy in 1940, Škorpik began his naval career as an officer in the Royal Yugoslav Navy. Following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 which saw the rapid collapse of the KM, Škorpik joined the Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia, serving as a harbour officer in Makarska. After coming into contact with local communist operatives, he eventually defected to the Partisans in late 1942.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Croatian Home Guard (World War II)</span> Military unit

The Croatian Home Guard was the land army part of the armed forces of the Independent State of Croatia which existed during World War II.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">World War II in Yugoslavia</span>

World War II in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia began on 6 April 1941, when the country was invaded and swiftly conquered by Axis forces and partitioned among Germany, Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria and their client regimes. Shortly after Germany attacked the USSR on 22 June 1941, the communist-led republican Yugoslav Partisans, on orders from Moscow, launched a guerrilla liberation war fighting against the Axis forces and their locally established puppet regimes, including the Axis-allied Independent State of Croatia (NDH) and the Government of National Salvation in the German-occupied territory of Serbia. This was dubbed the National Liberation War and Socialist Revolution in post-war Yugoslav communist historiography. Simultaneously, a multi-side civil war was waged between the Yugoslav communist Partisans, the Serbian royalist Chetniks, the Axis-allied Croatian Ustaše and Home Guard, Serbian Volunteer Corps and State Guard, Slovene Home Guard, as well as Nazi-allied Russian Protective Corps troops.

<i>Beograd</i>-class destroyer Class of three destroyers built for the Royal Yugoslav Navy in the late 1930s

The Beograd class of destroyers consisted of three ships built for the Yugoslav Royal Navy in the late 1930s, a variant of the French Bourrasque class. Beograd was constructed in France, and Zagreb and Ljubljana were built in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In January 1940, Ljubljana struck a reef off the port of Šibenik and was still under repair when the German-led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia commenced in April 1941. During the invasion, Zagreb was scuttled to prevent its capture, and the Italians captured the other two ships. The Royal Italian Navy operated Beograd and Ljubljana as convoy escorts between Italy, the Aegean Sea, and North Africa, under the names Sebenico and Lubiana respectively. Lubiana was lost in the Gulf of Tunis in April 1943; Sebenico was seized by the Germans in September 1943 after the Italian surrender and was subsequently operated by the German Navy as TA43. There are conflicting reports about the fate of TA43, but it was lost in the war's final weeks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Croatian Armed Forces (Independent State of Croatia)</span> 1944–1945 military in the Axis puppet state

The Croatian Armed Forces were formed in 1944 with the uniting of the Croatian Home Guard and the Ustaše Militia in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH). It was established by the fascist Ustaše regime of Ante Pavelić in the NDH an Axis puppet state in Yugoslavia during World War II.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Croatian Naval Legion</span> Croatian Naval Legion under German command

The Croatian Naval Legion was a contingent of volunteers from the Independent State of Croatia that served with Nazi Germany's navy Kriegsmarine, on the Black Sea and Adriatic Sea during World War II.

Yugoslav torpedo boat <i>T3</i> Austro-Hungarian then Yugoslav torpedo boat operating between 1921 and 1945

T3 was a sea-going torpedo boat that was operated by the Royal Yugoslav Navy between 1921 and 1941. Originally 78 T, a 250t-class torpedo boat of the Austro-Hungarian Navy built in 1914, she was armed with two 66 mm (2.6 in) guns, four 450 mm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes, and could carry 10–12 naval mines. She saw active service during World War I, performing convoy, escort and minesweeping tasks, anti-submarine operations and shore bombardment missions. In 1917 the suffixes of all Austro-Hungarian torpedo boats were removed, and thereafter she was referred to as 78. She was part of the escort force for the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought Szent István during the action that resulted in the sinking of that ship by Italian torpedo boats in June 1918.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Royal Yugoslav Navy</span> 1921–1945 maritime warfare branch of Yugoslavias military

The Royal Navy, commonly known as the Royal Yugoslav Navy, was the naval warfare service branch of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. It was brought into existence in 1921, and initially consisted of a few former Austro-Hungarian Navy vessels surrendered at the conclusion of World War I and transferred to the new nation state under the terms of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. The only modern sea-going warships transferred to the new state were twelve steam-powered torpedo boats, although it did receive four capable river monitors for use on the Danube and other large rivers. Significant new acquisitions began in 1926 with a former German light cruiser, followed by the commissioning of two motor torpedo boats (MTBs) and a small submarine flotilla over the next few years. When the name of the state was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929, the name of its navy was changed to reflect this. In the late 1920s, several of the original vessels were discarded.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">392nd (Croatian) Infantry Division</span> Military unit

The 392nd (Croatian) Infantry Division was a so-called "legionnaire" division of the German Army during World War II. It was formed in August 1943 using Croatian Home Guard soldiers with a German cadre. The division was commanded by Germans down to battalion and even company level in nearly all cases. Originally formed with the intention of service on the Eastern Front, this did not eventuate, and the division was used in anti-Partisan operations in the territory of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) until the end of the war. It was commonly known as the Blue Division.

The Ustaše Militia was the military branch of the Ustaše, established by the fascist and genocidal regime of Ante Pavelić in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), an Axis puppet state established from a large part of occupied Yugoslavia during World War II.

The 1941 Treaties of Rome were a series of treaties concluded by the Fascist Italian regime and the World War II collaborationist Independent State of Croatia on 18 May 1941, following the Axis Invasion of Yugoslavia. The treaties determined the borders between the NDH and Italy, effectively ceding territory largely organised as the Governorate of Dalmatia to the latter. They also prohibited the NDH from deploying naval forces to the Adriatic Sea, and restricted movement of its troops in the Italian-controlled part of the NDH.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">June 1941 uprising in eastern Herzegovina</span> 1941 Serb uprising

In June 1941, Serbs in eastern Herzegovina rebelled against the authorities of the Independent State of Croatia, an Axis puppet state established during World War II on the territory of the defeated and occupied Kingdom of Yugoslavia. As the NDH imposed its authority, members of the fascist Ustaše ruling party began a genocidal campaign against Serbs throughout the country. In eastern Herzegovina, the Ustaše perpetrated a series of massacres and attacks against the majority Serb population commencing in the first week of June. Between 3 and 22 June 1941, spontaneous clashes occurred between NDH authorities and groups of Serbs in the region.

250t-class torpedo boat Boat of the Austro-Hungarian Navy

The 250t class were high-seas torpedo boats built for the Austro-Hungarian Navy between 1913 and 1916. A total of 27 boats were built by three shipbuilding companies, with the letter after the boat number indicating the manufacturer. There were small variations between manufacturers, mainly in the steam turbines used, and whether they had one or two funnels. The eight boats of the T-group, designated 74 T – 81 T, were built by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino, located at Triest. The sixteen boats of the F-group, 82 F – 97 F, were built by Ganz-Danubius at their shipyards at Fiume and Porto Re. The three M-group boats, 98 M – 100 M, were manufactured by Cantiere Navale Triestino at Monfalcone.

<i>Albona</i>-class minelayer Class of Italian and Yugoslav mine warfare ships

The Albona class were mine warfare ships used by the Italian Regia Marina and Royal Yugoslav Navy. Fourteen ships were originally laid down between 1917 and 1918 for the Austro-Hungarian Navy as the MT.130 class. However, the end of World War I and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary left them incomplete until 1920, when three ships were finished for the Regia Marina. These ships were armed with two 76 mm (3 in) guns. An additional five ships were completed for the KM in 1931 as the Malinska or Marjan class, and were armed with a single 66 mm (2.6 in). All of the completed ships could carry 24 to 39 naval mines. The remaining ships were never completed.

Yugoslav torpedo boat <i>T7</i> Sea-going torpedo boat operated by the Royal Yugoslav Navy

T7 was a sea-going torpedo boat operated by the Royal Yugoslav Navy between 1921 and 1941. Originally 96 F, a 250t-class torpedo boat of the Austro-Hungarian Navy built in 1915–1916, she was armed with two 66 mm (2.6 in) guns and four 450 mm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes, and could carry 10–12 naval mines. She saw active service during World War I, performing convoy escort, patrol, and minesweeping tasks, and anti-submarine operations. In 1917 the suffixes of all Austro-Hungarian torpedo boats were removed, and thereafter she was referred to as 96.

Yugoslav torpedo boat <i>T5</i> Sea-going torpedo boat

T5 was a sea-going torpedo boat operated by the Royal Yugoslav Navy between 1921 and 1941. Originally 87 F, a 250t-class torpedo boat of the Austro-Hungarian Navy built in 1914–1915, she was armed with two 66 mm (2.6 in) guns and four 450 mm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes, and could carry 10–12 naval mines. She saw active service during World War I, performing convoy, patrol, escort and minesweeping tasks, anti-submarine operations and shore bombardment missions. In 1917 the suffixes of all Austro-Hungarian torpedo boats were removed, and thereafter she was referred to as 87. She was part of the escort force for the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought Szent István during the action that resulted in the sinking of that ship by Italian torpedo boats in June 1918, and rescued many of her crew.

Yugoslav torpedo boat <i>T6</i> Royal Yugoslav Navy sea-going torpedo boat

T6 was a sea-going torpedo boat that was operated by the Royal Yugoslav Navy between 1921 and 1941. Originally 93 F, a 250t-class torpedo boat of the Austro-Hungarian Navy built in 1915–1916, she was armed with two Škoda 66 mm (2.6 in) guns and four 450 mm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes and could carry 10–12 naval mines. She saw active service during World War I, performing convoy, escort, patrol and minesweeping tasks, as well as anti-submarine operations. In 1917 the suffixes of all Austro-Hungarian torpedo boats were removed, and thereafter she was referred to as 93.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Croatian Peasant Party during World War II</span> History of a political party in World War II-Yugoslavia

During World War II, the Croatian Peasant Party splintered into several factions pursuing different policies and alliances. Prior to the German invasion of Yugoslavia, it was the most powerful political party among ethnic Croats, controlled the administration and police in Banovina of Croatia, and commanded two paramilitary organisations. After the successful invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in April 1941, Nazi Germany proposed that HSS leader Vladko Maček could rule Croatia as a puppet state. He declined, but the Ustaše agreed and proclaimed the Independent State of Croatia. Under duress, Maček called on Croats to support the regime. A splinter of the HSS and all HSS-controlled infrastructure went over to the Ustaše.

References