Nutritional immunology

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Nutritional immunology is a field of immunology that focuses on studying the influence of nutrition on the immune system and its protective functions. Indeed, every organism will under nutrient-poor conditions "fight" for the precious micronutrients and conceal them from invading pathogens. As such, bacteria, fungi, plants secrete for example iron chelators (siderophores) to acquire iron from their surrounding [1]

Contents

Part of nutritional immunology involves studying the possible effects of diet on the prevention and management on developing autoimmune diseases, chronic diseases, allergy, cancer (diseases of affluence) and infectious diseases. [2] Other related topics of nutritional immunology are: malnutrition, malabsorption and nutritional metabolic disorders including the determination of their immune products. [3] [4] [5] [6]

Prevention and management of diseases

Autoimmune diseases

The development and progression of many autoimmune diseases are generally unknown. The "Western pattern diet" consists of high-fat, high-sugar, low-fiber meals with a surfeit of salt and highly processed food, which have pro-inflammatory effects. These effects may promote Th1- and Th17 - biased immunity and alter monocyte and neutrophil migration from bone marrow. [7] [8] A healthy diet contains a multitude of micronutrients that have anti-inflammatory and immune boosting effects that can help prevent or treat autoimmune diseases.

The impact of diet is studied in relation to these autoimmune diseases: [9] [10] [11]

Allergies

Nutrition can help prevent or promote the development of food allergies. The hygiene hypothesis states that a child's early introduction to certain microorganisms can avert the onset of allergies. Breastfeeding is considered to be the main method of preventing food allergies. This is because breast milk contains oligosaccharides, secretory IgA, vitamins, antioxidants and possible transfer of microbiota. [12] Conversely, a child's lack of exposure to specific microorganisms can establish a vulnerability to food allergies

Diabetes

Diabetes mellitus is a disease in which one's blood sugar levels are elevated. [13] There are two forms of diabetes: Type 1 diabetes and Type 2 diabetes. Type 1 is caused by the immune system attacking insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. Type 2 is caused by the underproduction of insulin and the cells in your body becoming resistant to insulin. [13] A low-glycemic diet that is high in fiber is recommended for diabetics because low-glycemic foods digest slower in the body. Slower digestion helps stabilize blood glucose levels and prevents spikes in blood sugar. [14]

Cancer

Cancer is a disease with multifactorial causes. Cigarette smoking, physical activity, viruses, and diet play a role in the development of cancer. [15] Poor diet has been linked to the development of cancer, while a healthy diet has been shown to have positive effects on preventing and treating cancer. Cruciferous vegetables contain chemicals called Isothiocyanates (ITC's). ITC's have immune-boosting effects, as well as anti-cancer activity such as the prevention of angiogenesis. Angiogenesis is a process where tumors have their own blood supply in order to feed growing cancer cells. The alliinase containing food group, allium, has anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory properties. Alliinase is an enzyme, which acts as an angiogenisis-inhibitor and a carcinogen detoxifier. Mushrooms reduce cancer cell and tumor growth and prevent DNA damage. Mushrooms have aromatase inhibitors that decrease the levels of estrogen released in the bloodstream, slowing the production of breast tissue. Fruits and vegetables contain flavonoids, which are anti-carcinogens. [14]

Macronutrients

Macronutrients are a class of nutrients that the human body needs in larger amounts in order to function properly and the three main classes of macronutrients include: proteins, carbohydrates, and fats (lipids). The main role of macronutrients besides to make sure the body functions properly is to provide the body with energy in the form of calories.

Proteins

Proteins are large biomolecules made up of chains of amino acids, which are the organic compounds that make most bodily functions possible. [16] Proteins are found naturally within the body and are found in foods such as meat, fish, dairy products, eggs, seeds and nuts, and beans and legumes. Throughout the body, proteins are found in hair, nails, muscles and bones, they also can function as enzymes and/or hormones. The role of proteins as enzymes and/or hormones is imperative for cell function and physiological processes as simple as growth. [17] Proteins aid in muscle growth, speed up metabolism and lower blood pressure. Proteins are imperative for the body's tissues and organs, working in their function, structure and regulation. [16] Protein's protect the immune system in the form of antibodies, y-shaped proteins that bind to viral, bacterial and parasitic infections, signaling to the rest of the body that there is a foreign cell that should be neutralized. [18] Without antibodies, the body would not be able to target and fight infection.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are sugars, starches and fibers found in grains, fruits, dairy products and vegetables. Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. They help the body's immunology by maintaining blood sugar, which reduces the body's stress response. [19] It is common for people to consume carbohydrate rich foods before working out in order to maintain energy and avoid crash afterwards, this is a positive result of having maintained blood sugar. Carbohydrates are also an energy source for cells, act as cell receptors for recognition, and function in cell support. [17]

Fats (lipids)

Lipids are macromolecules made up of hydrocarbons, there are 3 main types of lipids: triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids. Lipids are hydrophobic molecules, therefore they are only soluble in non-polar solvents. [20] Because of this, lipids do not break down in the body without the use of lipase enzymes, which break down lipids into glycerol and fatty acids. Lipids can be found in oils, dairy products, and some meats, along with in avocados and nuts. Cholesterol is a type of lipid and is an important feature in plasma membranes, which work in regulating immune cell plasticity. [17] Lipids maintain the structure of cell membranes, act as storehouses of energy, maintain body temperature/ aid in homeostasis, are important signaling molecules. [21] Without lipids, bodily cells would not be able to maintain function or survive. While consuming too many lipids can lead to obesity, high cholesterol, type 2 diabetes and other diseases, they are an important molecule to consume and maintain within the body. There are also vitamins that only dissolve in fats, such as vitamin A, K, D and E; these vitamins are vital in transporting and metabolizing fatty acids, transporting molecules across membranes and activating enzymes necessary for oxidative phosphorylation. [22] Without lipids, cells in the body would not function and the body would simply fail. They are among the most important macromolecules.

Omega-3 fatty acids

Eicosapentaenioc acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are omega-3 fatty acids, which can be found in marine fish, primarily in salmon, tuna, mackerel, herring and sardines and in fish oil. These two fatty acids are important components of cell membranes. It has been shown that they have anti-inflammatory effects in the body. EPA and DHA inhibit production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6; they reduce the expression of adhesion molecules that are involved in inflammation and may modulate and reduce production of prostaglandins and leukotriens from the n-6 fatty acid arachidonic acid. These changes are most likely due to alterations in the lipid rafts on cell membranes, which then further affect signaling cascades and inhibition of activation of the pro-inflammatory transcriptional factor NF-κB. EPA and DHA can increase the production of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and promote production of protective mediators such as resolvins, protectins and maresins. [23]

Micronutrients

Micronutrients are a group of nutrients, usually in smaller amounts, that are vital for the human body to perform various physiological functions properly. This includes vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, and antioxidants.

Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins and Minerals are essential substances that the body needs to grow and function. Your body needs thirteen vitamins, but does produce Vitamin K by the gut microflora and Vitamin D from the sunlight. [24] It is important to note that a lack of vitamins and minerals such as iron will prime the immune system. [25] Indeed, a lack of iron [26] [27] and vitamin A [28] is associated with all cause-mortality and morbidity.

There are two types of vitamins, including fat-soluble vitamins and water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins that are soluble in organic solvents, which include vitamins A, K, E, and D. [29] Water-soluble vitamins are vitamins that are soluble in water and include vitamin C and B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, vitamin B-6, vitamin B-12, and folate. [30] Most of the essential vitamins the body needs can be obtained by a balanced diet, with the exception of a portion of the population who don't get enough micronutrients from their diet or have a health condition that affects their nutritional needs. Similarly to vitamins, minerals are needed for your body to be healthy and to function properly. Minerals function to keep your bones, muscles, heart, and brain working correctly. Minerals also play a crucial role in the regulation and function of the immune system. In the adaptive immune system,[ citation needed ] the mineral zinc is an important structural element of the hormone thymulin, which is produced by the epithelial cells of the thymus [ citation needed ] and mediates the maturation of pre-T lymphocytes into T lymphocytes [ citation needed ] needed to protect the body from infection. [31] Minerals include phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, and sulfur. There are also trace minerals needed in smaller amounts, which include iron, manganese, copper, iodine, zinc, cobalt, fluoride, and selenium. [32]

Phytochemicals

Phytochemicals are chemical compounds found in plants. These phytochemicals are present in things like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, seeds, nuts, and legumes. They provide a multitude of health benefits ranging from small improvements such as, lowering blood pressure, reducing inflammation, and lowering LDL cholesterol levels in the blood to the major benefits of fighting against the growth of tumors, cancer, cardiovascular disease, along with being able to boost the immune system. [33]

Free radical production Free-radicals-oxygen.jpg
Free radical production

Antioxidants

Antioxidants are compounds that block unpaired electrons in a molecule or atom and keep it from becoming a free radical. Free radicals are molecules that are either naturally made in the human body after exercise or can be from exposure to environmental factors such as, cigarette smoke, pollution, and sunlight. These free radicals are destabilized and are highly reactive, which produces oxidative stress. This oxidative stress is what causes reactions that can damage cells in the body and can cause the cells to lose their function and become pathogenic. [34]

Polyphenols

Polyphenols are organic substances that naturally occur in plants. They are important antioxidants with anti-inflammatory properties. It was demonstrated that curcumin can modulate immunity in many ways, mainly via regulation and inhibition of transcription factors such as nuclear factor NF-κB and activator protein 1 (AP-1). [35] Another polyphenol, resveratrol, also modulates and promotes immune response. [36]

Prebiotics and Probiotics

Dietary prebiotics are a fermented ingredient that affect the composition and/or activity of the gut microbiome in a way that is beneficial to the host. [37] Prebiotics involve mainly oligosaccharides and carbohydrates (fructooligosaccharides, galactooligosacharides, xylooligosaccharides, mannose oligosaccharides). These substances can modulate immune responses in the gut. Prebiotics regulate the growth of beneficial microbial organisms in the intestine (commensal bacteria). [38]

Probiotics are live microorganisms that are beneficial to the host in sufficient amounts. [39] Probiotics and their metabolites balance and modulate anti-inflammatory or pro-inflammatory immune responses in gut. [40] Probiotics induce antimicrobial peptides such as β-defensin-2, they increase the production of T regulatory cells, and regulate cytokines and chemokines. [41] They can also affect the polarization of the immune response (Th1 instead of Th2) and increase the production of IgA in the gut. [42] The bacterial strains most commonly used as probiotics are Lactobacillus, Enterococcus, Bifidobacterium group [43]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immune system</span> Biological system protecting an organism against disease

The immune system is a network of biological systems that protects an organism from diseases. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, as well as cancer cells and objects such as wood splinters, distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy tissue. Many species have two major subsystems of the immune system. The innate immune system provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli. The adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered. Both use molecules and cells to perform their functions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dietary fiber</span> Portion of plant-derived food that cannot be completely digested

Dietary fiber or roughage is the portion of plant-derived food that cannot be completely broken down by human digestive enzymes. Dietary fibers are diverse in chemical composition, and can be grouped generally by their solubility, viscosity, and fermentability, which affect how fibers are processed in the body. Dietary fiber has two main components: soluble fiber and insoluble fiber, which are components of plant-based foods, such as legumes, whole grains and cereals, vegetables, fruits, and nuts or seeds. A diet high in regular fiber consumption is generally associated with supporting health and lowering the risk of several diseases. Dietary fiber consists of non-starch polysaccharides and other plant components such as cellulose, resistant starch, resistant dextrins, inulin, lignins, chitins, pectins, beta-glucans, and oligosaccharides.

A nutrient is a substance used by an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce. The requirement for dietary nutrient intake applies to animals, plants, fungi, and protists. Nutrients can be incorporated into cells for metabolic purposes or excreted by cells to create non-cellular structures, such as hair, scales, feathers, or exoskeletons. Some nutrients can be metabolically converted to smaller molecules in the process of releasing energy, such as for carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and fermentation products, leading to end-products of water and carbon dioxide. All organisms require water. Essential nutrients for animals are the energy sources, some of the amino acids that are combined to create proteins, a subset of fatty acids, vitamins and certain minerals. Plants require more diverse minerals absorbed through roots, plus carbon dioxide and oxygen absorbed through leaves. Fungi live on dead or living organic matter and meet nutrient needs from their host.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Autoimmunity</span> Immune response against an organisms own healthy cells

In immunology, autoimmunity is the system of immune responses of an organism against its own healthy cells, tissues and other normal body constituents. Any disease resulting from this type of immune response is termed an "autoimmune disease". Prominent examples include celiac disease, diabetes mellitus type 1, Henoch–Schönlein purpura (HSP), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Sjögren syndrome, eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves' disease, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, Addison's disease, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), ankylosing spondylitis, polymyositis (PM), dermatomyositis (DM), and multiple sclerosis (MS). Autoimmune diseases are very often treated with steroids.

In medicine, the hygiene hypothesis states that early childhood exposure to particular microorganisms protects against allergies by strengthening the immune system. In particular, a lack of such exposure is thought to lead to poor immune tolerance. The time period for exposure begins before birth and ends at school age.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inflammatory bowel disease</span> Medical condition

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of inflammatory conditions of the colon and small intestine, with Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis (UC) being the principal types. Crohn's disease affects the small intestine and large intestine, as well as the mouth, esophagus, stomach and the anus, whereas ulcerative colitis primarily affects the colon and the rectum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cat food</span> Food for consumption by cats

Cat food is food specifically designed for consumption by cats. As obligate carnivores, cats have specific requirements for their dietary nutrients, namely nutrients found only in meat, such as taurine, arginine, and Vitamin B6. Certain nutrients, including many vitamins and amino acids, are degraded by the temperatures, pressures and chemical treatments used during manufacture, and hence must be added after manufacture to avoid nutritional deficiency.

Prebiotics are compounds in food that foster growth or activity of beneficial microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. The most common environment considered is the gastrointestinal tract, where prebiotics can alter the composition of organisms in the gut microbiome.

Skin disorders are among the most common health problems in dogs, and have many causes. The condition of a dog's skin and coat is also an important indicator of its general health. Skin disorders of dogs vary from acute, self-limiting problems to chronic or long-lasting problems requiring life-time treatment. Skin disorders may be primary or secondary in nature, making diagnosis complicated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gut microbiota</span> Community of microorganisms in the gut

Gut microbiota, gut microbiome, or gut flora, are the microorganisms, including bacteria, archaea, fungi, and viruses, that live in the digestive tracts of animals. The gastrointestinal metagenome is the aggregate of all the genomes of the gut microbiota. The gut is the main location of the human microbiome. The gut microbiota has broad impacts, including effects on colonization, resistance to pathogens, maintaining the intestinal epithelium, metabolizing dietary and pharmaceutical compounds, controlling immune function, and even behavior through the gut–brain axis.

Immunogenicity is the ability of a foreign substance, such as an antigen, to provoke an immune response in the body of a human or other animal. It may be wanted or unwanted:

Intestinal permeability is a term describing the control of material passing from inside the gastrointestinal tract through the cells lining the gut wall, into the rest of the body. The intestine normally exhibits some permeability, which allows nutrients to pass through the gut, while also maintaining a barrier function to keep potentially harmful substances from leaving the intestine and migrating to the body more widely. In a healthy human intestine, small particles can migrate through tight junction claudin pore pathways, and particles up to 10–15 Å can transit through the paracellular space uptake route. There is some evidence abnormally increased intestinal permeability may play a role in some chronic diseases and inflammatory conditions. The most well understood condition with observed increased intestinal permeability is celiac disease.

Interleukin-22 receptor subunit alpha-2 (IL-22RA2), also known as interleukin-22 binding protein (IL-22BP) is a naturally secreted monomeric protein acting as an interleukin-22 (IL-22) antagonist with inhibitory effects on IL-22 activity in vivo. IL-22BP is in humans encoded by the IL22RA2 gene located on chromosome 6, and in mice is encoded by the il22ra2 gene located on chromosome 10. IL-22BP belongs to the class II cytokine receptor family and it is a soluble receptor homolog of IL-22R.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Free fatty acid receptor 2</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFAR2), also termed G-protein coupled receptor 43 (GPR43), is a rhodopsin-like G-protein coupled receptor. It is coded by the FFAR2 gene. In humans, the FFAR2 gene is located on the long arm of chromosome 19 at position 13.12. Like other GPCRs, FFAR2s reside on the surface membrane of cells and when bond to one of their activating ligands regulate the function of their parent cells. FFAR2 is a member of a small family of structurally and functionally related GPRs termed free fatty acid receptors (FFARs). This family includes three other receptors which, like FFAR2, are activated by certain fatty acids: FFAR1, FFAR3 (GPR41), and FFAR4 (GPR120). FFAR2 and FFAR3 are activated by short-chain fatty acids whereas FFAR1 and FFAR4 are activated by long-chain fatty acids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CYP4F2</span> Enzyme protein in the species Homo sapiens

Cytochrome P450 4F2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CYP4F2 gene. This protein is an enzyme, a type of protein that catalyzes chemical reactions inside cells. This specific enzyme is part of the superfamily of cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes, and the encoding gene is part of a cluster of cytochrome P450 genes located on chromosome 19.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microbial symbiosis and immunity</span>

Long-term close-knit interactions between symbiotic microbes and their host can alter host immune system responses to other microorganisms, including pathogens, and are required to maintain proper homeostasis. The immune system is a host defense system consisting of anatomical physical barriers as well as physiological and cellular responses, which protect the host against harmful microorganisms while limiting host responses to harmless symbionts. Humans are home to 1013 to 1014 bacteria, roughly equivalent to the number of human cells, and while these bacteria can be pathogenic to their host most of them are mutually beneficial to both the host and bacteria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Autoimmune disease</span> Disorders of adaptive immune system

An autoimmune disease is a condition that results from an anomalous response of the adaptive immune system, wherein it mistakenly targets and attacks healthy, functioning parts of the body as if they were foreign organisms. It is estimated that there are more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, with recent scientific evidence suggesting the existence of potentially more than 100 distinct conditions. Nearly any body part can be involved.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intestinal mucosal barrier</span>

The intestinal mucosal barrier, also referred to as intestinal barrier, refers to the property of the intestinal mucosa that ensures adequate containment of undesirable luminal contents within the intestine while preserving the ability to absorb nutrients. The separation it provides between the body and the gut prevents the uncontrolled translocation of luminal contents into the body proper. Its role in protecting the mucosal tissues and circulatory system from exposure to pro-inflammatory molecules, such as microorganisms, toxins, and antigens is vital for the maintenance of health and well-being. Intestinal mucosal barrier dysfunction has been implicated in numerous health conditions such as: food allergies, microbial infections, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease, metabolic syndrome, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, diabetes, and septic shock.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Senior dog diet</span>

Senior dog food diets are pet foods that are catered toward the senior or mature pet population. The senior dog population consists of dogs that are over the age of seven for most dog breeds, though in general large and giant breed dogs tend to reach this life stage earlier when compared to smaller breed dogs. Senior dog foods contain nutrients and characteristics that are used to improve the health of the aging dog. Aging in dogs causes many changes to occur physiologically that will require a change in nutrient composition of their diet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypoallergenic dog food</span>

Hypoallergenic dog food diets are created for dogs that experience food-related allergies causing adverse effects to their physical health.Super Hypoallergenic is enzymatic hydrolyzed hypoallergenic ostrich protein. The molecules that usually become allergens are intact proteins or glycoproteins. Hypoallergenic dog food diets offer a variety of protein sources that are unique by using proteins that are not recognized by the dog's antibodies as being antigens, minimizing allergic reactions for example Ostrich meat, bones and sinews. Adding novel protein sources, such as novel meats that a dog or its ancestors have never been exposed to is one method. Novel proteins can also be created by chemically modifying well known protein sources using hydrolysis techniques, rendering proteins unrecognizable by the gastrointestinal tract. Not all antigens are specific to proteins, however, and it is possible for anything that the body ingests to become an allergen. Providing diets with a limited amount of ingredients can be used for diagnostic purposes, as well as for dogs who are allergic to the common ingredients that are used in pet food. Certain nutrients are commonly incorporated into hypoallergenic dog food to help alleviate the symptoms of an allergic reaction. These ingredients include omega-3 fatty acids, Vitamins A and E, zinc, novel carbohydrates, and fiber.

References

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