History
Precontact
In the pre-Columbian era, Based on archaeological evidence, scholars estimate that various distinct cultures of American Indians occupied this part of the mid-Atlantic coast for more than 10,000 years before European contact. [7] Evidence has been collected by archaeologists, anthropologists, and historians. [9] Varying cultures of indigenous peoples of the Americas lived in the areas later occupied by the historic Pamunkey.
The Pamunkey are part of the larger Algonquian-speaking language family. This was composed of a number of tribes who spoke variations of the same language, a language now mostly lost. By 1607, more than 30 tribes were tributaries of the Algonquian Powhatan Confederacy, of which the Pamunkey were the largest and one of the most powerful. [9] [18] Chief Powhatan and his daughter Matoaka (better known as Pocahontas to historians), who achieved historical fame, were the Pamunkey Indians. [7] Captain Samuel Argall abducted her as a hostage in an attempt to secure the release of some English prisoners and ammunitions held by her father. [19]
European Arrival
Initial contact with European Colonists was around 1570. "And from [1570] on at ever briefer intervals until the first permanent English colony was established at Jamestown in 1607, the Powhatan Confederacy was visited by white men: Spanish, French, and English." (Barbour, 5). Scholars estimate that when the English arrived in 1607, this paramount chiefdom numbered about 14,000–21,000 people. [5]
Colonists of the first successful English settlement, based at Jamestown, had a complicated relationship with Virginia's tribes. In the winter of 1607, Opechanacanough, chief of the Pamunkey tribe, captured Captain John Smith. Smith was brought to Opechancanough's brother, Chief Powhatan. This first meeting between Powhatan and Smith resulted in an alliance between the two people. Powhatan sent Smith back to Jamestown in the spring of 1608 and started sending gifts of food to the colonists. [20] If not for Powhatan's donations, the settlers would not have survived through the first winters. As the settlement expanded, competition for land and other resources, and conflict between the European settlers and Virginia tribes, had increased.
Gradual English colonization
The story of Pocahontas (Matoaka) tells a piece of Pamunkey history, but from an English colonial perspective. Study of primary documents from the time of English arrival shows that initial contact was characterized by mutual cultural misunderstanding. Colonists portrayed the Virginia tribes by contrasts. They had respect for Powhatan, but characterized other American Indians by terms such as "naked devils". Their fear and appreciation of American Indians was coupled with distrust and unease. George Percy's account of the early years expresses such duality: "It pleased God, after a while, to send those people which were our mortal enemies to relieve us with victuals, as bread, corn fish, and flesh in great plenty, which was the setting up of our feeble men, otherwise we had all perished". [21]
The colonists generally mistrusted most Indian tribes, but they noted the Pamunkey did not steal. "Their custom is to take anything they can seize off; only the people of Pamunkey we have not found stealing, but what others can steal, their king receiveth." [22]
The Powhatan could not understand the violent tactics employed by the colonists. As one noted, "What it will avail you to take by force you may quickly have by love, or to destroy them that provide you food? What can you get by war, when we can hide our provisions and fly to the woods? Whereby you must famish by wronging us your friends. And why are you thus jealous of our loves seeing us unarmed, and both do, and are willing still to feed you, with that you cannot get but by our labors?" [23] Smith included this translation of Powhatan's questions in his writings.
Powhatan's maternal half-brother and ultimate successor, Opechancanough, launched attacks in 1622 and 1644 as a result of English colonists encroaching on Powhatan lands. The first, known as the Indian Massacre of 1622, destroyed colonial settlements such as Henricus and Wolstenholme Towne, and nearly wiped out the colony. [24] Jamestown was spared in the attack of 1622 due to a warning. During each attack, about 350–400 settlers were killed. In 1622, the population had been 1,200, and in 1644, 8,000 prior to the attacks. Captured in 1646, Opechancanough was killed by a settler assigned to guard him, against orders. His death contributed to the decline of the Powhatan chiefdom. [5]
In 1646, the first treaty was signed between the Opechancanough's successor, Necotowance, and the English. The treaty set up boundaries between lands set aside for the Virginia tribes and those that were now considered property of English colonists, reservations lands, and yearly tribute payment of fish and game (made to the English). These boundaries could not be crossed unless it was on official business and badges had to be worn to illustrate the point. [5] During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, English settlers continued to expand the colony of Virginia, even further by displacing the Pamunkey and making it impossible for them to sustain their traditional practices.
Bacon's Rebellion
Bacon's Rebellion, which began in 1675, resulted in attacks on several tribes that were loyal to the English. The rebellion was a joint effort of white and black former indentured servants. The rebellion was led by Nathaniel Bacon against his relation, Governor Sir William Berkeley. The cause of the rebellion was Berkeley's refusal to come to the aid of colonists subjected to frequent raids and murder by the Indians. Bacon and other colonists, former indentured servants, were victims of raids by local Virginia tribes. Bacon's overseer was murdered by raiding Indians.
Cockacoeske (weroansqua of the Pamunkey), who succeeded her husband after he was killed fighting for the English, was an ally of Berkeley against Bacon. To the English, she was known as "Queen of the Pamunkey". She is known for having signed the Articles of Peace (Treaty of Middle Plantation) in 1677, after Bacon's Rebellion ended. As a result of the treaty, she gained authority over the Rappahannock and Chickahominy tribes, which had not formerly been under the paramount chiefdom of the Pamunkey. Completion of the treaty ushered in a time of peace between the Virginia tribes and the English Colonists. [9] This treaty was signed by more tribal leaders than that of 1646. It reinforced the annual tribute payments and added the Siouan and Iroquoian tribes to the Tributary Indians of the colonial government. More reservation lands were established for the tribes, but the treaty required Virginia’s tribal leaders to acknowledge they and their peoples were subjects of the King of England. While the rebellion did not completely succeed in the initial goal of driving the American Indians away from Virginia, it did result in Governor Sir William Berkeley being recalled to England, where he died shortly thereafter. [8]
Later history
In 2009, about 430 tribal members remained, some of whom lived on their 1,200-acre (4.9 km2) reservation. Others spread out across the United States. [16]
The Pamunkey have been able to survive because of their ability to adapt as a tribe. Withstanding pressure to give up their reservation lands has helped them maintain traditional ways. [7] Men use some of the old methods for fishing, part of the tribe's traditional heritage. They also continued to hunt and trap on reservation lands. [8]
In 1998, the tribe built a shad hatchery to ensure continuation of an important food source. When shad are caught, the eggs of females are taken and placed into a bucket. Sperm from males are put into the same bucket. At holding tanks, the fertilized eggs are allowed to grow and hatch. Once the new fish are grown enough, usually after 21 days, they are flushed back into the river. Chief Miles estimated that seven million fry were put back into the river in 1998 and probably triple that number in 1999. [8]
Pottery
The Pamunkey tradition of pottery making dates back to before the English settled Jamestown. They have been using clay from the banks of the Pamunkey River since prehistoric times. Many continue to use the traditional method. To do so, they let the clay dry, then break it into smaller pieces. These pieces are soaked in water until reaching the consistency of cream. The clay is strained to remove rocks or debris. The water is drained and pressed out until the clay is like dough. It is then ready to be made into pots. Traditional pottery by Pamunkey ancestors of the Woodland Period was strengthened with crushed or burned shells, crushed steatite, river pebbles, or quartz sand. [8]
In 1932, during the Great Depression, the Commonwealth of Virginia helped the Pamunkey develop their pottery as a source of income. The state set up a program for a pottery school and provided a teacher. The state furnished materials for the building, but the tribe built it themselves. Tribal members learned methods to increase the speed of manufacture. They incorporated firing pottery in a kiln and using glazes into their techniques. They learned to use squeeze molds to produce copies of pots quickly. Kiln firing produced finished pottery of more uniform brown tones than the shades of gray from traditional pottery techniques. [8]
Pamunkey pottery-makers learned how to paint and glaze pots. The teacher taught them designs and pictographs based on well-known and popular Southwestern Indigenous traditions. Two pictographs represent important stories to the tribe: the story of Captain John Rolfe and Pocahontas and the story of the treaty that set up payments of game. After the teacher left the school, some members returned to traditional pottery techniques. [8] Pamunkey used both traditional and newer techniques to create their pieces. To differentiate, pots made the traditional way are called 'blackware'. The Pamunkey Indian Museum has a variety of vessels, as well as videos and exhibits, that explain the differences in construction methods, types of temper, and decorating techniques. [8]
The Pamunkey ensured their Pamunkey Indian Tribe Museum, built in 1979, resembled the traditional yehakin. Located on the reservation, the museum provides visitors with insight into the tribe's long history and culture. Included are artifacts from more than 10,000 years of indigenous settlement, replicas of prehistoric materials, and stories. The Smithsonian Institution recently selected the Pamunkey as one of 24 tribes to be featured in the National Museum of the American Indian in Washington, D.C.
Federal recognition
The Commonwealth of Virginia has always recognized the Pamunkey tribe, with formal relations dating back to the treaties of 1646 and 1677. [25] However, since the United States did not exist at the time of those treaties, no formal relations existed between the Pamunkey and the federal government. In 1982, the Pamunkey began the process of applying for federal recognition. [26] Their formal application met with opposition from MGM Casinos, which feared potential competition with its planned casino in Prince George's County, Maryland, and from members of the Congressional Black Caucus, who noted that the tribe had historically forbidden intermarriage between its members and black people. The interracial marriage ban, which had long been unenforced and was formally rescinded in 2012, was a relic of the tribe's attempt to circumvent Virginia's Racial Integrity Act of 1924, which recognized only "White" and "Colored" people. [27] [28] The Bureau of Indian Affairs initially said that the Pamunkey had met its requirements for federal recognition in January 2014, but the final decision was repeatedly delayed until July 2, 2015, when the BIA granted them formal recognition. [25] [ dead link ]. In February 2016 the Pamunkey received a court victory over a challenge to their right to exist as a political entity. [29]
During the process of obtaining federal recognition controversy around the tribe's racist legacy came to light as the tribe disenfranchised and outlawed their members from intermarrying with Black families such as the Dungey's/Dungee families during their the 1861 "Black laws". Therefore, using the 1900 and 1910 censuses as their only base rolls has been considered problematic by many because it excludes those Pamunkey Indians who were disenfranchised and forced to move from the Reservation before those censuses were taken. Despite the Black Laws supposedly being repealed in 2014, the tribe has yet to change their enrollment criteria. [30] Due to this discrimination after the "Black laws" many mixed Black Pamunkey's moved to New Kent (these families were inaccurately referred to as "fringe Pamunkey" by Helen Rountree) and Cumberland Counties, Virginia, and despite the disenfranchisement they still maintained their Pamunkey identity. For example, during the late 1800s John Howell as trying to build an Indian only school for Pamunkeys living in New Kent. This was even referenced in OFA's preliminary decision for Pamunkey federal acknowledgement. It's also interesting to note that John R Dungee taught at the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute.
