| Phyllomedusa burmeisteri | |
|---|---|
 | |
Scientific classification  | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Amphibia |
| Order: | Anura |
| Family: | Hylidae |
| Genus: | Phyllomedusa |
| Species: | P. burmeisteri |
| Binomial name | |
| Phyllomedusa burmeisteri Boulenger, 1882 | |
Phyllomedusa burmeisteri, also known as Burmeister's leaf frog and common walking leaf frog, is a species of frog native to the Atlantic Forest biome in Brazil. [1] [2]
Individuals show sexual dimorphism in size. Males have a mean body length (snout vent length) of (63.4 ± 4.5 mm), and females have a mean body length of (76.7 ± 3.2 mm) [3]
Males use calls to communicate their location to others. They also act as warning signals to potential opponents. P. burmeisteri males communicate through acoustical calls, which are either short or long calls. Short calls last from 330 to 450 ms, whereas long calls last from 560 to 600 ms. The calls are usually projected in arrangements of 2 to 5 at a time and are regularly spaced. [4] BUR-RJ males, however, do not produce long calls. Males also use calls to attract and find females to mate with. The sound that they emit changes based on which of these behaviors they are trying to accomplish. However, the call that signals where the frogs are in relation to one another is also used by females when they are choosing a mate.
Warning calls act as a threat display and will transition from a short call to a long call, which is based on the number of pulses per call. If the opponent gets closer or begins to act in an aggressive manner towards a male, the male's calls will increase in length and number of pulses, and will become more rapid. The male will try to ward off competitors by using calls, as this method is less risky compared to engaging in physical combat. Males will become more violent if a potential intruder or competitor, which is usually another male, does not retreat. In the case that the calls are ignored and the male chooses to engage in physical fight, the male will either chase or wrestle their opponent. [3]
There are two branches or evolutionary units of the P. burmeisteri species. These two branches are represented as BUR and BUR-RJ. Individuals of the BUR-RJ unit are typically found near the Serra do Mar mountain range in Rio de Janeiro, while the BUR unit can be found around in different locations in South America. The BUR unit of P. burmeisteri are usually found around still fresh water and near clearings and forest borders. They are prominent in South America and specifically Brazil. Within Brazil, they are more highly concentrated in Bahia, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo, which are all states in Brazil. The BUR unit of P. burmeisteri is more commonly found in Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo. The reason the BUR-RJ unit is so limited is because its range is cut off by the Paraíba do Sul River. Geographical element such as rivers or mountain ranges are known to limit the range and expansion of species to a particular area. [4]
P. burmeisteri also communicate through visual behaviors. [3] [4] The males will use a calling site when they perform mating or threat calls. They typically choose to utilize tree branches high in the air that have very few leaves or vegetation. One theory for why they make their calls on high barren branches is that it allows for a clear visual field making communication with other frogs easier. If they can see each other more easily, they will more efficiently be able to communicate and understand one another. Another possible explanation is that it encourages territory defense and also makes searching for a mate easier. Another benefit is that they are better able to defend their territory if they can see potential competitors and threats early on. Being able to see others is crucial to P. burmeisteri because they rely heavily on visual communication. One reason a visual form of communication is important is because they live in noisy environments, and therefore can not always rely on sound. The frogs also have contrasting color patterns on their legs that allow for them to be easily spotted by others. [3]
Visual communication is utilized when it comes to mating. Males and females will slowly stretch and unstretch their patterned legs as part of a visual mating display. This can be described as a kind of peddling movement. Males then increase their call rate (in pulses per call) in response to this leg stretching, allowing the females to more rapidly locate a mate. The male and female leaf frogs mate along a leaf and leave clusters of eggs wrapped up in leaves.
Tadpoles usually have a width of 46.80 mm. Tadpoles have a narrow body and a trapezoidal shape. The width of their body is about one third of their body length. Phyllomedusa tadpoles are usually a dull green color with dark spots around the dorsal region in the shape of stripes. [5] They are also active during both the day and the night, usually staying stationary in their pond for the majority of the time. However, when they are startled, they will flee to a deeper part of the body of water and hide in any available crevices or rocks. [6]
Eggless capsules surround the eggs and protect the eggs from all sides. The female P. burmeisteri usually remains with the eggs in her created nest to protect them, and the male frog leaves. The eggless capsules and leaves that surround the egg clusters prevent desiccation and drying of the eggs. At this time, the eggs need moisture while they develop. Rain is common in this tropical environment and it keeps the eggs' environment humid while they grow. [3]
P. burmeisteri engage in a behavior known as pedal luring. Pedal luring is a strategy used by many frog species to capture prey. They typically start their hunt by latching onto something and waiting still and patiently for prey to come by. Once prey is near the frog, the frog will face towards the insect and start to move its fourth and fifth toes in a pedaling back and forth manner. [7] The pedaling typically lasts for about 5 seconds, and becomes faster as the prey gets closer to the frog. [7] The underside of the toes have white colored disks, which are bright and easily seen against the green contrasts of its surroundings. The white dots catch and help attract the attention of the prey, luring them in. [7] After the prey is lured in close enough, the frog lunges out quickly and captures it using tongue protraction. These white dots are hidden on the under side of the frog during the day when they are not hunting. This is typical of many organisms, as they hide their coloration during the day when not in use.
P. burmeisteri feed mostly on orthropterans, cockroaches, spiders, and crickets. [8] [4] Since these organisms live on the ground, their diet suggests that they do most of their feeding and hunting on the ground, or near the rainforest floor. [8]
Many frog species struggle with deforestation, as they rely on the humid environment of the rainforest. Oftentimes after the land is cleared, the species will disappear from the area. Deforestation in Brazil has led to a rapid decrease in species richness; however, P. burmeisteri appear to be somewhat resistant to deforestation, due to their ability to easily adapt to new environments. [9]
Insulin is a hormone that is responsible for regulating energy metabolism and maintaining proper levels of glucose and lipid homeostasis in the body. The lack or inability of insulin secretion leads to hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, and diabetes. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) has become a major health threat across the planet. Peptides from frog skin, specifically Phylloseptin peptides, have been found to induce insulinotropic activities. The peptide Phylloseptin-PBu can be isolated from P. burmeisteri and showed dose-dependent insulinotropic properties in rat pancreatic beta BRIN BD11 cells. It is able to catalyze insulin release by deactivating Potassium ATP channels, leading Phylloseptin-PBu peptide is able to act as a potent antidiabetic with a low cytotoxicity risk, proving valuable to potentially treating T2DM. Phylloseptin-like peptides have also been to have antimicrobial, antibacterial, and anti-fungal activities. These peptides achieve such activity by disruption of the cell membrane. [10]
There is also some investigation into other Phyllomedusa species for biosynthesis of anti-microbial natural products. [11] Their venomous secretions are made up of complex peptide combinations unique to each species and environmental threats, and can yield a high diversity and potentially wide range of new therapeutics that can be applied to other organisms or even human health. [11]
Poison dart frog is the common name of a group of frogs in the family Dendrobatidae which are native to tropical Central and South America. These species are diurnal and often have brightly colored bodies. This bright coloration is correlated with the toxicity of the species, making them aposematic. Some species of the family Dendrobatidae exhibit extremely bright coloration along with high toxicity, while others have cryptic coloration with minimal to no amount of observed toxicity. The species that have great toxicity derive this feature from their diet of ants, mites and termites. However, other species that exhibit cryptic coloration, and low to no amounts of toxicity, eat a much larger variety of prey. Many species of this family are threatened due to human infrastructure encroaching on their habitats.
Pseudis is a genus of South American frogs in the family Hylidae. They are often common and frequently heard, but easily overlooked because of their camouflage and lifestyle, living in lakes, ponds, marshes and similar waters with extensive aquatic vegetation, often sitting at the surface among plants or on floating plants, but rapidly diving if disturbed. Whereas the adults are medium-sized frogs, their tadpoles are large; in some species the world's longest.
Cryptobatrachus is a genus of frogs in the family Hemiphractidae. They are found in Colombia and Venezuela. They are also known as backpack frogs, as the females have the habit of carrying their egg clutch on their backs until the young hatch; this behavior also occurs in the related hemiphractid genera Hemiphractus and Stefania.
Stefania is a genus of frogs in the family Hemiphractidae. They are native to the highlands of the Guiana Shield in southern Venezuela, Guyana, and adjacent far northern Brazil. Most are restricted to the tepui highlands, but S. evansi also occurs in lowlands. On most mountains there are only 1–2 species from this genus, but five are known from Mount Ayanganna and the neighbouring Mount Wokomung has six species. They are usually found near streams at low levels on branches/leaves or on the ground among vegetation/rocks.
Phyllomedusa bicolor, the giant leaf frog, bicolor tree-frog, giant monkey frog, or waxy-monkey treefrog, is a species of leaf frog. It can be found in the Amazon basin of Brazil, Colombia (Amazonas), Bolivia, and Peru, and can also be found in the Guianan Region of Venezuela and the Guianas, and in Cerrado of the state of Maranhão in Brazil.
Phyllomedusa sauvagii, the waxy monkey leaf frog or waxy monkey tree frog, is a species of frog in the subfamily Phyllomedusinae. It is native to South America, where it occurs in Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Brazil. This species is arboreal, living in the vegetation of the Gran Chaco.
Hyalinobatrachium orientale is a species of glass frog in the family Centrolenidae. It is found on the island of Tobago and in eastern Venezuela. Its common name is eastern glass frog. The Tobagonian population has been described as subspecies Hyalinobatrachium orientalis tobagoensis(Hardy, 1984). The latter is sometimes referred to as Tobago glass frog. H. orientale is distributed throughout the Central Eastern ranges of the Cordillera de la Costa in Venezuela and Tobago Island with an altitudinal range of 190 to 1200 meters.
Dendropsophus branneri is a small hylid tree frog endemic to the Atlantic Forest region of Brazil. It feeds mainly on arthropods and is preyed upon by various invertebrates and vertebrates. Although currently classified by the IUCN Redlist as "least concern", D. branneri suffers rapid habitat loss due to residential development, agriculture, logging, and clearing for pastureland. Male D. branneri are noted for their fighting call, which differs significantly in frequency, duration, and pulses per call compared to their mate advertisement call. Males are also noted for their willingness to escalate physical altercations against other males, which includes kicking, pushing, and wrestling their opponent into non-dominant positions. Unlike most other frog species, D. branneri can breed in both temporary and permanent pools allowing it to inhabit a wide variety of habitats leading to its wide distribution.
Dendropsophus ebraccatus, also known as the hourglass treefrog, referring to the golden-brown hourglass shape seen surrounded by skin yellow on its back. Their underbellies are yellow. Their arms and lower legs usually display bold patterns while their upper legs or thighs are light yellow giving them the appearance of wearing no pants. The species name "ebraccata" translates to "without trousers" in Latin.
Agalychnis lemur, the lemur leaf frog or lemur frog, is a species of frog in the subfamily Phyllomedusinae. It is found in Costa Rica, Panama, and adjacent northwestern Colombia. It is classed as Critically Endangered and threatened by the fungal disease chytridiomycosis.
Boana beckeri is a species of frog in the family Hylidae. It is endemic to Brazil and is only known from a handful of localities in southern Minas Gerais and adjacent northeastern São Paulo. The specific name beckeri honors Johann Becker, Brazilian zoologist who collected many of the types.
Pithecopus ayeaye, also known as the reticulated leaf frog and reticulate leaf frog, is a species of frog in the subfamily Phyllomedusinae. It is endemic to Brazil. P. ayeaye is found in the transition zone between cerrado and Atlantic semi-deciduous forest, laying its eggs on leaves above streams or pools so the tadpoles, when hatched, fall into the water below. This species is under threat from habitat loss resulting from mining activity and fires, and is also affected by pollution from mining and pesticides. Its restricted range is likely to make it particularly vulnerable to these threats.
Pithecopus rohdei, also known as Rohde's leaf frog, Rohde's frog, and Mertens' leaf frog, is a species of frog in the subfamily Phyllomedusinae. The species was previously placed in the genus Phyllomedusa. The species is endemic to southeastern Brazil and occurs at elevations up to 1000 meters above sea level.
Phyllomedusa trinitatis is a species of frog in the subfamily Phyllomedusinae. It is found in Venezuela and the island of Trinidad.
The Caatinga horned frog is a species of frog in the family Ceratophryidae. It is endemic to Brazil. Its natural habitats are dry savanna, subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, subtropical or tropical dry lowland grassland, and intermittent freshwater marshes. They are voracious predators that use a sit-and-wait feeding strategy to ambush prey, which includes ants and small vertebrates. They are also known to be explosive breeders.
Stefania ayangannae is a species of frog in the family Hemiphractidae. It is endemic to Guyana where it is known from Mount Ayanganna and Mount Wokomung, both in the Pacaraima Mountains.
Stefania evansi is a species of frog in the family Hemiphractidae. Stefania evansi is, along with other closely related frogs, known for its unusual reproductive mode where females carry the eggs and juveniles on their back. It is sometimes known under common names Groete Creek carrying frog, Groete Creek treefrog, or Evans' stefania. These names refer to its type locality, Groete Creek in the region Essequibo Islands-West Demerara, Guyana, where the holotype was collected by one Dr. R. Evans.
Stefania roraimae is a species of frog in the family Hemiphractidae. It is endemic to Guyana. Its type locality is Mount Roraima; it is also known from Mount Ayanganna and Mount Wokomung. It presumably occurs in the adjacent Venezuela and Brazil too.
Stefania woodleyi is a species of frog in the family Hemiphractidae. It is endemic to the eastern part of the Pakaraima Mountains in Guyana, including Mount Wokomung and Mount Ayanganna.
The Hemiphractidae are a family of frogs from South and Central America. Previously, this group had been classified as a subfamily (Hemiphractinae) under family Hylidae. More recent research classifies these genera into their own family, or sometimes into three separate families: Amphignathodontidae, Cryptobatrachidae, and Hemiphractidae. An active question still exists as to which of these groupings is more accurate.
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