Brigandage in Southern Italy (Italian: brigantaggio) had existed in some form since ancient times. However, its origins as outlaws targeting random travellers would evolve vastly later on to become a form of a political resistance movement, especially from the 19th century onward. During the time of the Napoleonic conquest of the Kingdom of Naples, the first signs of political resistance brigandage came to public light, as the Bourbon loyalists of the country refused to accept the new Bonapartist rulers and actively fought against them until the Bourbon monarchy had been reinstated.[4] Some claim that the word brigandage is a euphemism for what was in fact a civil war.[5]
Following the upheaval during Sicily's transition out of feudalism in 1812, a lack of an effective police force made banditry a serious problem in much of rural Sicily during the 19th century.[6] Rising food prices, the loss of public and church lands, and the loss of feudal common rights pushed many desperate peasants into banditry.[6][7]
With no police to call upon, local elites in countryside towns recruited young men into "companies-at-arms" to hunt down thieves and negotiate the return of stolen property in exchange for a pardon for the thieves and a fee from the victims - a development that is often seen as the genesis of the Mafia.[8] These companies-at-arms were often made up of former bandits and criminals, usually the most skilled and violent of them.[7] While this saved communities the trouble of maintaining their own policemen, this may have made the companies-at-arms more inclined to collude with their former brethren rather than destroy them.[7]
After the fall of the House of Bourbon's Kingdom of Two Sicilies and its merger with the House of Savoy's Kingdom of Sardinia in 1861, which created the Kingdom of Italy, the most famous form of brigandage emerged in Southern Italy.[9] According to Marxist theoretician Nicola Zitara, Southern Italy experienced social unrest, especially among the lower classes, due to poor conditions and the fact that the unification of Italy had only benefited the land-owning bourgeoisie,[4] so many turned to brigandage in the mountains of Basilicata, Campania, Calabria and Abruzzo. However, the brigands were not a homogeneous group, nor did they operate with any common cause. The brigands consisted of a mixture of people with different backgrounds and motives. They included former prisoners; bandits and other people who the Italian government regarded as common criminals; former soldiers and loyalists from the former Bourbon army; foreign mercenaries in the pay of the Bourbon king in exile; some nobility; poverty stricken farmers; and peasants who wanted land reforms. Both men and women took up arms.[4]
Brigands launched attacks, not just against the Italian authorities and the landowners, but also against common people,[10] frequently looting villages, towns and farms, and committing armed robberies against both individuals and groups, including farmers, townspeople and rival brigand bands.[10] Robberies by brigand bands were often accompanied by other acts of violence and vandalism, such as arsons, murders, rapes, kidnappings, extortions and crop burnings.[10]
An extremely harsh repression of the brigands by the Italian authorities began in 1863, especially after the passing of the Pica Laws, which permitted the arrest of relatives and those suspected of collaborating or helping a brigand.[11] The villages of Pontelandolfo and Casalduni in the Province of Benevento became the site of a massacre of thirteen brigands by Italian Bersaglieri,[12] as a reprisal after the massacre of forty-five soldiers of the Italian army by local brigands.[13] In total, several thousand brigands were arrested and executed, while many more were deported or fled the country (see Italian diaspora).[4] In Palermo in 1866, 40,000 Italian soldiers were needed to put down The Seven and a Half Days Revolt.
An indication of the number of deaths during the conflict, including killings and other damages caused by brigandage, can be found in "Result of Operations", signed by colonel Bariola of the 6th Military Department in Naples, for the first nine months of 1863:[14] 421 brigands had been killed in combat, 322 were shot by firing squad, 504 arrested and 250 surrendered. During the same period, the brigands killed 228 soldiers and wounded 94, killed 379 other persons and kidnapped 331, and killed or stole 1,821 head of cattle.
Whilst brigandage was virtually non-existent in the annexed states of northern and central Italy after the unification in 1861, such as the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, the Duchy of Parma, the Duchy of Modena, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Papal States, the situation in Southern Italy was very different, owing to the previous centuries of history. In his book Eroi e briganti (Heroes and brigands),[15] the Italian historian and politician Francesco Saverio Nitti describes how brigandage was endemic in southern Italy already before 1860:
« … every part of Europe has had brigands and criminals who during wars and misfortune dominated the countryside and put themselves outside the law […] but there was only one country in Europe where brigandage has existed we can say always […] a country where brigandage for many centuries can look like a huge river of blood and hates […] a country where for centuries monarchy based itself on brigandage that became like a historical agent: this is the country of Midday» (from Italian “Mezzodì” or “Mezzogiorno”, the name for Southern Italy during the 19th century) .
There is a thesis that the brigandage in southern Italy was a popular revolt against Italian unification and the House of Savoy, but it should noted that after 1865–1870 the brigandage movement was never followed by any anti-Savoy or anti-unification movement. Many southern Italians held high positions in the new Italian government, such as the 11th Prime Minister of Italy Francesco Crispi. Italians from southern Italy would also go on to play a key role in the ultra-nationalist Fascist movement, most notably the so-called 'philosopher of Fascism' Giovanni Gentile.[citation needed] The thesis that southern Italy was hostile to Savoy after the unification also doesn't explain the fact that in the referendum on 2 June 1946, about the creation of the Italian Republic, the south voted overwhelmingly for the Savoy monarchy, while the north voted for a republic, and from 1946 to 1972 the monarchist parties (which merged into the Italian Democratic Party of Monarchist Unity) were especially strong in the south and in Naples (a city in which nearly 80% supported the Savoy monarchy).[16]
A small band of brigands from Bisaccia, photographed in 1862
Banditry is a type of organized crime committed by outlaws typically involving the threat or use of violence. A person who engages in banditry is known as a bandit and primarily commits crimes such as extortion, robbery, and murder, either as an individual or in groups. Banditry is a vague concept of criminality and in modern usage can be synonymous for gangsterism, brigandage, marauding, terrorism, piracy and thievery.
Francesco Saverio Vincenzo de Paola Nitti was an Italian economist and political figure. A member of the Italian Radical Party, Nitti served as Prime Minister of Italy between 1919 and 1920. An opponent of the fascist regime in Italy, he opposed any kind of dictatorship throughout his career. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia in "Theories of Overpopulation", Nitti was also a staunch critic of English economist Thomas Robert Malthus and his Principle of Population; Nitti wrote Population and the Social System (1894). He was an important meridionalist and studied the origins of Southern Italian problems that arose after Italian unification.
Southern Italy, also known as Meridione or Mezzogiorno, is a macroregion of Italy consisting of its southern regions.
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San Fele is a town and comune in the province of Potenza in the Basilicata region of southern Italy.
Brigandage is the life and practice of highway robbery and plunder. It is practiced by a brigand, a person who is typically part of a gang and lives by pillage and robbery.
Pietraroja is a mountain comune (municipality) in the province of Benevento in Campania, southern Italy. It is approximately 50 km by car from Benevento, in direction north-west, 83 km from Naples in direction north-east and approximately 223 km from Rome in direction south-east.
Social banditry or social crime is a form of social resistance involving behavior that by law is illegal but is supported by wider "oppressed" society as moral and acceptable. The term "social bandit" was invented by the Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm and introduced in his books Primitive Rebels (1959) and Bandits (1969). Hobsbawm characterized social banditry as a primitive form of class struggle and resistance in pre-industrial and frontier societies. Social banditry is a widespread phenomenon that has occurred in many societies throughout recorded history, and forms of social banditry still exist, as evidenced by piracy and organized crime syndicates. Later, social scientists have also discussed the term's applicability to more modern forms of crime, like street gangs and the economy associated with the trade in illegal drugs.
Carmine Crocco, known as Donatello or sometimes Donatelli, was an Italian brigand. Initially a soldier for the Bourbons, he later fought in the service of Giuseppe Garibaldi.
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Li chiamarono... briganti! is a 1999 Italian film, directed by Pasquale Squitieri. It tells the story of Carmine Crocco, a 19th-century Italian brigand who gained recognition when he came to the forefront of the brigandage during the Italian unification, by opposing the army of King Victor Emmanuel II. It stars Enrico Lo Verso, Claudia Cardinale, Franco Nero, Remo Girone, Giorgio Albertazzi, among others. The movie was quickly suspended from its cinema run and it is not available on VHS or DVD. Some people think this was for the censorship of the Italian army.
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Giuseppe Nicola Summa, known as Ninco Nanco, was an Italian brigand. One of the most important brigands after the Italian unification, he was a lieutenant of Carmine Crocco, band chief of the Vulture area, in Basilicata. He was known for his brilliant guerrilla warfare and for his brutality against his enemies.
Giuseppe Caruso, nicknamed "Zi 'Beppe", was an Italian brigand, the most renowned of the Lucan bands. He was, with Giovanni 'Coppa' Fortunato and Ninco Nanco, one of the most ruthless deputies of Carmine Crocco, but also, after being handed over to the Savoy authorities in 1863, one of the men responsible for the suppression of banditry in the Vulture. According to Crocco, Caruso killed 124 people in about four years as a fugitive.
Giovannantonio Cipriani was an Italian political activist and a proponent of Italian unification.
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↑ Ilaria Porciani, "On the Uses and Abuses of Nationalism from Below: A Few Notes on Italy", in Maarten Van Ginderachter and Marnix Beyen[nl] (eds.), Nationhood from Below: Europe in the Long Nineteenth Century (London: Palgrave Macmillan2012), p. 75: "the so-called Brigantaggio (1860–1870)".
↑ Eroi e briganti (Heroes and brigands) by Francesco Saverio Nitti – (edition 1899) – Osanna Edizioni 2015 – ISBN8881674696, 9788881674695 – page 33
↑ Of 1,145,624 valid votes, 903,651 (79%) were monarchist and 241,973 republican (21%)(See page 234 Istat data, in Franco Malnati, La grande frode. Come l'Italia fu fatta Repubblica, Bastogi Collana De Monarchica, Bari, 1998,
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