Pressure ridge (ice)

Last updated
Hypothetical interaction between two floes, resulting in a pressure ridge ---- a linear pile-up of sea ice fragments. Pressure ridge (ice) Formation Drawing3.svg
Hypothetical interaction between two floes, resulting in a pressure ridge —— a linear pile-up of sea ice fragments.
Internal structure of a first-year ice ridge with a 2 m sail height, MOSAiC expedition, July 4, 2020. Ridge MOSAiC.jpg
Internal structure of a first-year ice ridge with a 2 m sail height, MOSAiC expedition, July 4, 2020.

A pressure ridge, when consisting of ice in an oceanic or coastal environment, is a linear pile-up of sea ice fragments formed in pack ice by accumulation in the convergence between floes.

Contents

Such a pressure ridge develops in an ice cover as a result of a stress regime established within the plane of the ice. Within sea ice expanses, pressure ridges originate from the interaction between floes, [note 1] as they collide with each other. [1] Currents and winds are the main driving forces, but the latter is particularly effective when they have a predominant direction. [2] Pressure ridges are made up of angular ice blocks of various sizes that pile up on the floes. The part of the ridge that is above the water surface is known as the sail; that below it as the keel. [note 2] Pressure ridges are the thickest sea ice features and account for up to 30–40% of the total sea ice area [3] [4] and about one-half of the total sea ice volume. [5] Stamukhi are pressure ridges that are grounded and that result from the interaction between fast ice and the drifting pack ice. [6] [7] Similar to undeformed ice, pressure ridges can be first-, second-, and multiyear depending on how many melt seasons they managed to survive. Ridges can be formed from ice of different ages, but mostly consist of 20–40 cm thick blocks of thin and young ice. [2]

Internal structure

Although ice pressure ridges vary greatly in shape (which also evolves in time), this diagram (not to scale) shows how a drifting ridge is often idealized. Pressure ridge (ice) Geometry Drawing.svg
Although ice pressure ridges vary greatly in shape (which also evolves in time), this diagram (not to scale) shows how a drifting ridge is often idealized.
Pressure ridge at North Pole, expedition of University of Giessen, April 17, 1990 Presseisrucken am Nordpol, April 1990.jpg
Pressure ridge at North Pole, expedition of University of Giessen, April 17, 1990
A pressure ridge in the Antarctic ice near Scott Base, with lenticular clouds in the sky. Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
A pressure ridge in the Antarctic ice near Scott Base, with lenticular clouds in the sky.
Bottom topography of a first-year pressure ridge measured using underwater multibeam sonar during MOSAiC Expedition. Ridge 3D.png
Bottom topography of a first-year pressure ridge measured using underwater multibeam sonar during MOSAiC Expedition.

The blocks making up pressure ridges are mostly from the thinner ice floe involved in the interaction, but they can also include pieces from the other floe if it is not too thick. [1] In the summer, the ridge can undergo a significant amount of weathering, which turns it into a smooth hill. During this process, the ice loses its salinity (as a result of brine drainage and meltwater flushing). This is known as an aged ridge. [9] A fully consolidated ridge is one whose base has undergone complete freezing. [9] The term consolidated layer is used to designate the freezing up of the rubble just below the water line. [2] The existence of a consolidated layer depends on air temperature — in this layer, the water between individual blocks is frozen, with a resulting reduction in porosity and an increase in mechanical strength. A keel's depth of an ice ridge is much higher than its sail's height — typically about 3–5 times. The keel is also 2–3 times wider than the sail. [10] Ridges are usually melting faster than level ice, both at the surface [11] and at the bottom. [12] While first-year ridges melt approximately 4 times faster than surrounding level ice, [13] second-year ridges melt only 1.6 times faster than surrounding level ice. [11] Sea-ice ridges also play an important role in confining meltwater within under-ice meltwater layers, which may lead to the formation of false bottoms. [14] Ridges also play an important role in controlling the values of atmospheric drag coefficients. [15]

Thickness and consolidation

One of the largest pressure ridges on record had a sail extending 12 m above the water surface, and a keel depth of 45 m. [1] The total thickness for a multiyear ridge was reported to be 40 m. [16] On average, total thickness ranges between 5 m and 30 m, [5] with a mean sail height that remains below 2 m. [2] The average keel depth of Arctic ridges is 4.5 m. The sail height is usually proportional to the square root of the ridge block thickness. Ice ridges in Fram Strait usually have a trapezoidal shape with a bottom horizontal section covering around 17% of the total ridge width and with a mean draft of 7 m, [17] while ice ridges in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas have a concave close to triangular shape. [18]

The average consolidated layer thickness of Arctic ridges is 1.6 m. Usually, ridges consolidate faster than level ice because of their initial macroporosity. Ridge rubble porosity (or water-filled void fraction of ridge unconsolidated part) is in the wide range of 10–40%. During winter, ice ridges consolidate up to two times faster than level ice, with the ratio of level ice and consolidated layer thickness proportional to the square root of ridge rubble porosity. [19] This results in 1.6–1.8 ratio of consolidated layer and level ice thickness by the end of winter season. [20] Meanwhile, snow is usually about three times thicker above ridges than above level ice. [21] Sometimes ridges can be found fully consolidated with the total thickness up to 8 m. [22] Ridges may also contain from 6% to 11% of snow mass fraction, which can be potentially linked to the mechanisms of ridge consolidation. [23] Fram Strait ridge observations suggest, that the largest part of ridge consolidation happens during the spring season when during warm air intrusions or dynamic events snow can enter ridge keels via open leads and increase the speed of ridge consolidation. [24] These observations are supported by high snow mass fraction in refrozen leads, observed during the spring season. [25] The ridge consolidation potentially reduces light levels and the habitable space available for organisms, which may have negative ecological impacts as ridges have been identified as ecological hotspots.

Characterization methods

The physical characterization of pressure ridges can be done using the following methods: [2]

Interest for pressure ridges

From an offshore engineering and naval perspective, there are three reasons why pressure ridges are a subject of investigation. [5] Firstly, the highest loads applied on offshore structures operating in cold oceans by drift ice are associated with these features. [32] Secondly, when pressure ridges drift into shallower areas, their keel may come into contact with the seabed, thereby representing a risk for subsea pipelines (see Seabed gouging by ice) and other seabed installations. Thirdly, they have a significant impact on navigation. In the Arctic, ridged ice makes up about 40% of the overall mass of sea ice. [10] [3] First-year ridges with large macroporosity are important for the ice-associated sympagic communities and identified as potential ecological hotspots and proposed to serve as refugia of ice-associated organisms. [33]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ A floe is any individual piece of sea ice larger than 20 m (66 ft).
  2. ↑ These terms also apply to any floating ice feature, such as icebergs.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ice</span> Frozen water: the solid state of water

Ice is water that is frozen into a solid state, typically forming at or below temperatures of 0 °C, 32 °F, or 273.15 K. It occurs naturally on Earth, on other planets, in Oort cloud objects, and as interstellar ice. As a naturally occurring crystalline inorganic solid with an ordered structure, ice is considered to be a mineral. Depending on the presence of impurities such as particles of soil or bubbles of air, it can appear transparent or a more or less opaque bluish-white color.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gakkel Ridge</span> Mid-oceanic ridge under the Arctic Ocean between the North American and Eurasian plates

The Gakkel Ridge is a mid-oceanic ridge, a divergent tectonic plate boundary between the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate. It is located in the Eurasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean, between Greenland and Siberia. Geologically, it connects the northern end of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge with the Laptev Sea Rift.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sea ice</span> Outcome of seawater as it freezes

Sea ice arises as seawater freezes. Because ice is less dense than water, it floats on the ocean's surface. Sea ice covers about 7% of the Earth's surface and about 12% of the world's oceans. Much of the world's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth's polar regions: the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean. Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent, a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology, including the ocean's ecosystems. Due to the action of winds, currents and temperature fluctuations, sea ice is very dynamic, leading to a wide variety of ice types and features. Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs, which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean. Depending on location, sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs.

<i>Boreogadus</i> Species of fish

Boreogadus saida, known as the polar cod or as the Arctic cod, is a fish of the cod family Gadidae, related to the true cod. Another fish species for which both the common names Arctic cod and polar cod are used is Arctogadus glacialis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pancake ice</span> Form of sea ice consisting of round pieces

Pancake ice is a form of sea ice that consists of round pieces of ice with diameters ranging from 30 centimetres to 3 metres and thicknesses up to 10 centimetres, depending on the local conditions. It forms as a result of wave action on slush or ice rind.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seabed gouging by ice</span> Outcome of the interaction between drifting ice and the seabed

Seabed gouging by ice is a process that occurs when floating ice features drift into shallower areas and their keel comes into contact with the seabed. As they keep drifting, they produce long, narrow furrows most often called gouges, or scours. This phenomenon is common in offshore environments where ice is known to exist. Although it also occurs in rivers and lakes, it appears to be better documented from oceans and sea expanses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mid-ocean ridge</span> Basaltic underwater mountain system formed by plate tectonic spreading

A mid-ocean ridge (MOR) is a seafloor mountain system formed by plate tectonics. It typically has a depth of about 2,600 meters (8,500 ft) and rises about 2,000 meters (6,600 ft) above the deepest portion of an ocean basin. This feature is where seafloor spreading takes place along a divergent plate boundary. The rate of seafloor spreading determines the morphology of the crest of the mid-ocean ridge and its width in an ocean basin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ice road</span> Path made over frozen water rather than land

An ice road or ice bridge is a human-made structure that runs on a frozen water surface. Ice roads are typically part of a winter road, but they can also be simple stand-alone structures, connecting two shorelines. Ice roads may be planned, built and maintained so as to remain safe and effective, and a number of guidelines have been published with information in these regards. An ice road may be constructed year after year, for instance to service community needs during the winter. It could also be for a single year or two, so as to supply particular operations, such as a hydroelectric project or offshore drill sites.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ice jam</span> Accumulation of ice in a river

Ice jams occur when the ice that is drifting down-current in a river comes to a stop, for instance, at a river bend, when it contacts the river bed in a shallow area, or against bridge piers. Doing so increases the resistance to flow, thereby inducing an increase in water level upstream of the jam. Ice jams are thus a main cause for flooding during the winter. In addition, when the jam is released, depending on the conditions under which this happens, the amount of water that was retained behind the jam can also lead to flooding downstream of where the jam occurred. Ice jam floods are generally less predictable and can also be faster than open-water floods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lead (sea ice)</span> Fracture that opens up in an expanse of sea ice

A lead is a large fracture within an expanse of sea ice, defining a linear area of open water that can be used for navigation purposes. Leads vary in width from meters to hundreds of meters. As is the case for polynyas, leads allow the direct interaction between the atmosphere and the ocean, and are important for Arctic sea ice ecology. Additionally it has been lately found that ice leads contribute significantly to the amount of mercury deposited onto surface and leaked into the ocean. If the air is cold enough, the water within a lead quickly refreezes, such that in many cases, leads are partly or entirely covered by a thin layer of new ice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arctic Ocean</span> Ocean in the north polar region

The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five oceanic divisions. It spans an area of approximately 14,060,000 km2 (5,430,000 sq mi) and is the coldest of the world's oceans. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea. It has also been described as an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean. It is also seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing world ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Measurement of sea ice</span> Records made for navigational safety and environmental monitoring

Measurement of sea ice is important for safety of navigation and for monitoring the environment, particularly the climate. Sea ice extent interacts with large climate patterns such as the North Atlantic oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation, to name just two, and influences climate in the rest of the globe.

The Arctic dipole anomaly is a pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America and low pressure on those of Eurasia. This pattern sometimes replaces the Arctic oscillation and the North Atlantic oscillation. It was observed for the first time in the first decade of 2000s and is perhaps linked to recent climate change. The Arctic dipole lets more southern winds into the Arctic Ocean resulting in more ice melting. The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September. The Arctic dipole has also been linked to changes in arctic circulation patterns that cause drier winters in Northern Europe, but much wetter winters in Southern Europe and colder winters in East Asia, Europe and the eastern half of North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sea ice growth processes</span>

Sea ice is a complex composite composed primarily of pure ice in various states of crystallization, but including air bubbles and pockets of brine. Understanding its growth processes is important for climate modellers and remote sensing specialists, since the composition and microstructural properties of the ice affect how it reflects or absorbs sunlight.

Cecilia M. Bitz is an American climatologist known for her research on sea ice and high-latitude climate change. She is a professor and chair in the Atmospheric Sciences Department, as well as the director of the Program on Climate Change at the University of Washington. She was featured on NPR's All Things Considered segment to speak about factors that lead to sea ice loss in 2007, and testified before the United States Senate committee of Energy and Natural Resources on arctic opportunities in 2015.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">MOSAiC Expedition</span>

The Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate expedition was a one-year-long expedition into the Central Arctic. For the first time a modern research icebreaker was able to operate in the direct vicinity of the North Pole year round, including the nearly half year long polar night during winter. In terms of the logistical challenges involved, the total number of participants, the number of participating countries, and the available budget, MOSAiC represents the largest Arctic expedition in history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atlantification of the Arctic</span>

Atlantification is the increasing influence of Atlantic water in the Arctic. Warmer and saltier Atlantic water is extending its reach northward into the Arctic Ocean. The Arctic Ocean is becoming warmer and saltier and sea-ice is disappearing as a result. The process can be seen on the figure on the far right, where the sea surface temperature change in the past 50 years is shown, which is up to 5 degrees in some places. This change in the Arctic climate is most prominent in the Barents Sea, a shallow shelf sea north of Scandinavia, where sea-ice is disappearing faster than in any other Arctic region, impacting the local and global ecosystem.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">False bottom (sea ice)</span> Form of sea ice formed underwater between meltwater and seawater

False bottom is a form of sea ice that forms at the interface between meltwater and seawater via the process of double-diffusive convection of heat and salt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ice mass balance buoy</span> Method of measuring ice growth and melt

An ice mass balance buoy (IMB) allows scientists studying sea ice to measure its temperature and the evolution of its interfaces remotely. The autonomous mass balance buoys usually consist of a data controller module and a temperature string. Some ice mass balance buoys also include acoustic sounders above and below ice measuring the positions of the snow-ice and ice-water interfaces.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GoNorth expedition</span>

The GoNorth project is a series of expeditions into the Central Arctic in 2022, 2023, and 2024.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Weeks, W. F. (2010) On sea ice. University of Alaska Press, Fairbanks, 664 p.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Strub-Klein, L. & Sudom, D. (2012). A comprehensive analysis of the morphology of first-year sea ice ridges. Cold Regions Science and Technology, 82, pp. 94–109.
  3. 1 2 Hansen, E., Ekeberg, O. ‐C., Gerland, S., Pavlova, O., Spreen, G., Tschudi, M. (2014), "Variability in categories of Arctic sea ice in Fram Strait", Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 119 (10), American Geophysical Union (AGU): 7175–7189, Bibcode:2014JGRC..119.7175H, doi:10.1002/2014JC010048
  4. ↑ Brenner, Samuel; Rainville, Luc; Thomson, Jim; Cole, Sylvia; Lee, Craig (2021). "Comparing Observations and Parameterizations of Ice‐Ocean Drag Through an Annual Cycle Across the Beaufort Sea". Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 126 (4). doi: 10.1029/2020JC016977 . hdl: 1912/27387 . ISSN   2169-9275 . Retrieved 2024-12-28.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Leppäranta, M. (2005). The Drift of Sea Ice. Springer-Verlag, New York, 266 p.
  6. ↑ Barnes, P.W., D., McDowell & Reimnitz, E. (1978). Ice gouging characteristics: Their changing patterns from 1975-1977, Beaufort Sea, Alaska. United States Department of the Interior, Geological Survey Open File Report 78-730, Menlo Park, U.S.A., 42 p.
  7. ↑ Ogorodov, S.A. & Arkhipov, V.V. (2010) Caspian Sea bottom scouring by hummocky ice floes. Doklady Earth Sciences, 432, 1, pp. 703-707.
  8. ↑ Timco, G. W. & Burden, R. P. (1997). An analysis of the shapes of sea ice ridges. Cold Regions Science and Technology, 25, pp. 65-77.
  9. 1 2 http://nsidc.org/cryosphere/seaice/index.html Archived 2012-10-28 at the Wayback Machine .
  10. 1 2 Wadhams, P. (2000). Ice in the Ocean. Gordon and Breach Science Publ., London, 351 p.
  11. 1 2 Perovich, Donald K.; Grenfell, Thomas C.; Richter-Menge, Jacqueline A.; Light, Bonnie; Tucker, Walter B.; Eicken, Hajo (2003). "Thin and thinner: Sea ice mass balance measurements during SHEBA". Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 108 (C3). American Geophysical Union (AGU): 8050. Bibcode:2003JGRC..108.8050P. doi: 10.1029/2001jc001079 . ISSN   0148-0227.
  12. 1 2 Amundrud, T. L. (2004), "Geometrical constraints on the evolution of ridged sea ice", Journal of Geophysical Research, 109 (C6), Bibcode:2004JGRC..109.6005A, doi:10.1029/2003JC002251
  13. 1 2 Salganik, Evgenii; Lange, Benjamin A.; Katlein, Christian; Matero, Ilkka; Anhaus, Philipp; Muilwijk, Morven; Høyland, Knut V.; Granskog, Mats A. (2023-11-20). "Observations of preferential summer melt of Arctic sea-ice ridge keels from repeated multibeam sonar surveys". The Cryosphere. 17 (11). Copernicus GmbH: 4873–4887. Bibcode:2023TCry...17.4873S. doi: 10.5194/tc-17-4873-2023 . ISSN   1994-0424.
  14. ↑ Salganik, Evgenii; Katlein, Christian; Lange, Benjamin A.; Matero, Ilkka; Lei, Ruibo; Fong, Allison A.; Fons, Steven W.; Divine, Dmitry; Ogiier, Marc; Castellani, Giulia; Bozzato, Deborah; Chamberlain, Emelia J.; Hoppe, Clara J.M.; Muller, Oliver; Gardner, Jessie.; Rinke, Annette; Pereira, Patric Simões; Ulfsbo, Adam; Marsay, Chris; Webster, Melinda A.; Maus, Sönke; Høyland, Knut V.; Granskog, Mats A. (2023). "Temporal evolution of under-ice meltwater layers and false bottoms and their impact on summer Arctic sea ice mass balance". Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene. 11 (1): 00035. Bibcode:2023EleSA..11...35S. doi: 10.1525/elementa.2022.00035 . hdl: 10037/30456 .
  15. ↑ Mchedlishvili, Alexander; Lüpkes, Christof; Petty, Alek; Tsamados, Michel; Spreen, Gunnar (2023-09-21). "New estimates of pan-Arctic sea ice–atmosphere neutral drag coefficients from ICESat-2 elevation data". The Cryosphere. 17 (9). Copernicus GmbH: 4103–4131. Bibcode:2023TCry...17.4103M. doi: 10.5194/tc-17-4103-2023 . ISSN   1994-0424.
  16. ↑ Johnston, M., Masterson, D. & Wright, B. (2009). Multi-year ice thickness: knowns and unknowns. Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Port and Ocean Engineering under Arctic Conditions (POAC), Luleå, Sweden.
  17. ↑ Ekeberg, Ole-Christian; Høyland, Knut; Hansen, Edmond (January 2015). "Ice ridge keel geometry and shape derived from one year of upward looking sonar data in the Fram Strait". Cold Regions Science and Technology. 109: 78–86. Bibcode:2015CRST..109...78E. doi: 10.1016/j.coldregions.2014.10.003 . ISSN   0165-232X.
  18. ↑ Metzger, Andrew T.; Mahoney, Andrew R.; Roberts, Andrew F. (23 December 2021). "The Average Shape of Sea Ice Ridge Keels". Geophysical Research Letters. 48 (24). Bibcode:2021GeoRL..4895100M. doi: 10.1029/2021GL095100 . eISSN   1944-8007. ISSN   0094-8276. OSTI   1865017.
  19. ↑ Leppäranta, M., Hakala, R. (1992), "The structure and strength of first-year ice ridges in the Baltic Sea", Cold Regions Science and Technology, 20 (3): 295–311, Bibcode:1992CRST...20..295L, doi:10.1016/0165-232X(92)90036-T
  20. ↑ Salganik, E., Høyland, K. V., Maus, S. (2020), "Consolidation of fresh ice ridges for different scales", Cold Regions Science and Technology, 171, Bibcode:2020CRST..17102959S, doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2019.102959, hdl: 11250/2824887
  21. ↑ Itkin, P., Hendricks, S., Webster, M., Albedyll, L. von, Arndt, S., Divine, D., Jaggi, M., Oggier, M., Raphael, I., Ricker, R., Rohde, J., Schneebeli, M., Liston, G. E. (2023), "Sea ice and snow characteristics from year-long transects at the MOSAiC Central Observatory", Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 11 (1): 00048, Bibcode:2023EleSA..11...48I, doi:10.1525/elementa.2022.00048, hdl: 10037/30187
  22. ↑ Marchenko, A. (2022), "Thermo-Hydrodynamics of Sea Ice Rubble", IUTAM Symposium on Physics and Mechanics of Sea Ice, IUTAM Bookseries, vol. 39, Springer International Publishing, pp. 203–223, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-80439-8_10, ISBN   978-3-030-80438-1
  23. ↑ Lange, B. A., Salganik, E., Macfarlane, A., Schneebeli, M., Høyland, K., Gardner, J., Müller, O., Divine, D. V., Kohlbach, D., Katlein, C., Granskog, M. A. (2023), "Snowmelt contribution to Arctic first-year ice ridge mass balance and rapid consolidation during summer melt", Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 11, doi:10.1525/elementa.2022.00037, hdl: 10037/30087
  24. ↑ Salganik, E; Lange, BA; Itkin, P; Divine, D; Katlein, C; Nicolaus, M; Hoppmann, M; Neckel, N; Ricker, R; Høyland, KV; Granskog, MA (2023). "Different mechanisms of Arctic first-year sea-ice ridge consolidation observed during the MOSAiC expedition". Elem Sci Anth. 11 (1). University of California Press: 00008. Bibcode:2023EleSA..11....8S. doi: 10.1525/elementa.2023.00008 . hdl: 10037/29890 . ISSN   2325-1026.
  25. ↑ Clemens-Sewall, D; Polashenski, C; Frey, MM; Cox, CJ; Granskog, MA; Macfarlane, AR; Fons, SW; Schmale, J; Hutchings, JK; von Albedyll, L; Arndt, S; Schneebeli, M; Perovich, D (2023-06-23). "Snow Loss Into Leads in Arctic Sea Ice: Minimal in Typical Wintertime Conditions, but High During a Warm and Windy Snowfall Event". Geophysical Research Letters. 50 (12). American Geophysical Union (AGU). Bibcode:2023GeoRL..5002816C. doi: 10.1029/2023gl102816 . ISSN   0094-8276.
  26. ↑ Leppäranta, M., Lensu, M., Kosloff, P., Veitch, B. (1995), "The life story of a first-year sea ice ridge", Cold Regions Science and Technology, 23 (3): 279–290, Bibcode:1995CRST...23..279L, doi:10.1016/0165-232X(94)00019-T
  27. ↑ Kharitonov, V. V. (2008), "Internal structure of ice ridges and stamukhas based on thermal drilling data", Cold Regions Science and Technology, 52 (3): 302–325, Bibcode:2008CRST...52..302K, doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2007.04.020
  28. ↑ Lyon, Waldo (1961). "DIVISION OF OCEANOGRAPHY AND METEOROLOGY: OCEAN AND SEA‐ICE RESEARCH IN THE ARCTIC OCEAN VIA SUBMARINE*". Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences. 23 (8 Series II): 662–674. doi:10.1111/j.2164-0947.1961.tb01400.x. ISSN   0028-7113.
  29. ↑ Salganik, E., Høyland, K. V., Shestov, A. (2021), "Medium-scale experiment in consolidation of an artificial sea ice ridge in Van Mijenfjorden, Svalbard", Cold Regions Science and Technology, 181, Bibcode:2021CRST..18103194S, doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2020.103194, hdl: 11250/2724604
  30. ↑ Itkin, P., Hendricks, S., Webster, M., Albedyll, L. von, Arndt, S., Divine, D., Jaggi, M., Oggier, M., Raphael, I., Ricker, R., Rohde, J., Schneebeli, M., Liston, G. E. (2023), "Sea ice and snow characteristics from year-long transects at the MOSAiC Central Observatory", Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 11 (1): 00048, Bibcode:2023EleSA..11...48I, doi:10.1525/elementa.2022.00048, hdl: 10037/30187
  31. ↑ Duncan, K.; Farrell, S. L. (2022-09-28). "Determining Variability in Arctic Sea Ice Pressure Ridge Topography With ICESat‐2". Geophysical Research Letters. 49 (18). doi: 10.1029/2022GL100272 . ISSN   0094-8276 . Retrieved 2025-01-04.
  32. ↑ Ervik, Åse; Nord, Torodd S.; Høyland, Knut V.; Samardzija, Ilija; Li, Hongtao (2019). "Ice-ridge interactions with the Norströmsgrund lighthouse: Global forces and interaction modes". Cold Regions Science and Technology. 158: 195–220. Bibcode:2019CRST..158..195E. doi: 10.1016/j.coldregions.2018.08.020 . ISSN   0165-232X.
  33. ↑ Fernández-Méndez, M., Olsen, L. M., Kauko, H. M., Meyer, A., Rösel, A., Merkouriadi, I., Mundy, C. J., Ehn, J. K., Johansson, A. M., Wagner, P. M., Ervik, Å., Sorrell, B. K., Duarte, P., Wold, A., Hop, H., Assmy, P. (2018), "Algal Hot Spots in a Changing Arctic Ocean: Sea-Ice Ridges and the Snow-Ice Interface", Frontiers in Marine Science, 5, doi: 10.3389/fmars.2018.00075 , hdl: 10037/12583
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.