Senescence-associated secretory phenotype

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Senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) is a phenotype associated with senescent cells wherein those cells secrete high levels of inflammatory cytokines, immune modulators, growth factors, and proteases. [1] [2] SASP may also consist of exosomes and ectosomes containing enzymes, microRNA, DNA fragments, chemokines, and other bioactive factors. [3] [4] Soluble urokinase plasminogen activator surface receptor is part of SASP, and has been used to identify senescent cells for senolytic therapy. [5] Initially, SASP is immunosuppressive (characterized by TGF-β1 and TGF-β3) and profibrotic, but progresses to become proinflammatory (characterized by IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-8) and fibrolytic. [6] [7] SASP is the primary cause of the detrimental effects of senescent cells. [4]

Contents

SASP is heterogenous, with the exact composition dependent upon the senescent-cell inducer and the cell type. [4] [8] Interleukin 12 (IL-12) and Interleukin 10 (IL-10) are increased more than 200-fold in replicative senescence in contrast to stress-induced senescence or proteosome-inhibited senescence where the increases are about 30-fold or less. [9] Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is increased 32-fold in stress-induced senescence, 8-fold in replicative senescence, and only slightly in proteosome-inhibited senescence. [9] Interleukin 6 (IL-6) and interleukin 8 (IL-8) are the most conserved and robust features of SASP. [10] But some SASP components are anti-inflammatory. [11]

Senescence and SASP can also occur in post-mitotic cells, notably neurons. [12] The SASP in senescent neurons can vary according to cell type, the initiator of senescence, and the stage of senescence. [12]

An online SASP Atlas serves as a guide to the various types of SASP. [8]

SASP is one of the three main features of senescent cells, the other two features being arrested cell growth, and resistance to apoptosis. [13] SASP factors can include the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-xL, [14] but growth arrest and SASP production are independently regulated. [15] Although SASP from senescent cells can kill neighboring normal cells, the apoptosis-resistance of senescent cells protects those cells from SASP. [16]

History

The concept and abbreviation of SASP was first established by Judith Campisi and her group, who first published on the subject in 2008. [1]

Causes

SASP expression is induced by a number of transcription factors, including MLL1 (KMT2A), [17] C/EBPβ, and NF-κB. [18] [19] NF-κB and the enzyme CD38 are mutually activating. [20] NF-κB is expressed as a result of inhibition of autophagy-mediated degradation of the transcription factor GATA4. [21] [22] GATA4 is activated by the DNA damage response factors, which induce cellular senescence. [21] SASP is both a promoter of DNA damage response and a consequence of DNA damage response, in an autocrine and paracrine manner. [23] Aberrant oncogenes, DNA damage, and oxidative stress induce mitogen-activated protein kinases, which are the upstream regulators of NF-κB. [24] [25]

Demethylation of DNA packaging protein Histone H3 (H3K27me3) can lead to up-regulation of genes controlling SASP. [17]

mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) is also a key initiator of SASP. [22] [26] Interleukin 1 alpha (IL1A) is found on the surface of senescent cells, where it contributes to the production of SASP factors due to a positive feedback loop with NF-κB. [27] [28] [29] Translation of mRNA for IL1A is highly dependent upon mTOR activity. [30] mTOR activity increases levels of IL1A, mediated by MAPKAPK2. [27] mTOR inhibition of ZFP36L1 prevents this protein from degrading transcripts of numerous components of SASP factors. [31] [32] Inhibition of mTOR supports autophagy, which can generate SASP components. [33]

Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) is more vulnerable to DNA damage than DNA elsewhere in the genome such that rDNA instability can lead to cellular senescence, and thus to SASP [34] The high-mobility group proteins (HMGA) can induce senescence and SASP in a p53-dependent manner. [35]

Activation of the retrotransposon LINE1 can result in cytosolic DNA that activates the cGAS–STING cytosolic DNA sensing pathway upregulating SASP by induction of interferon type I. [35] cGAS is essential for induction of cellular senescence by DNA damage. [36]

SASP secretion can also be initiated by the microRNAs miR-146 a/b. [37]

Senescent cells release mitochondrial double-stranded RNA (mt-dsRNA) into the cytosol driving the SASP via RIGI/MDA5/MAVS/MFN1. Moreover, senescent cells are hypersensitive to mt-dsRNA-driven inflammation due to reduced levels of PNPT1 and ADAR1. [38]

Pathology

The composition and destructiveness of SASP depends upon the senescent cell type, the surrounding microenvironment, and the type of stimulus inducing the senescence. [39]

Senescent cells are highly metabolically active, producing large amounts of SASP, which is why senescent cells consisting of only 2% or 3% of tissue cells can be a major cause of aging-associated diseases. [32] SASP factors cause non-senescent cells to become senescent. [40] [41] [42] SASP factors induce insulin resistance. [43] SASP disrupts normal tissue function by producing chronic inflammation, induction of fibrosis and inhibition of stem cells. [44] Transforming growth factor beta family members secreted by senescent cells impede differentiation of adipocytes, leading to insulin resistance. [45]

SASP factors IL-6 and TNFα enhance T-cell apoptosis, thereby impairing the capacity of the adaptive immune system. [46]

SASP factors from senescent cells reduce nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) in non-senescent cells, [47] thereby reducing the capacity for DNA repair and sirtuin activity in non-senescent cells. [48] SASP induction of the NAD+ degrading enzyme CD38 on non-senescent cells (macrophages) may be responsible for most of this effect. [37] [49] [50] By contrast, NAD+ contributes to the secondary (pro-inflammatory) manifestation of SASP. [7]

SASP induces an unfolded protein response in the endoplasmic reticulum because of an accumulation of unfolded proteins, resulting in proteotoxic impairment of cell function. [51]

SASP cytokines can result in an inflamed stem cell niche, leading to stem cell exhaustion and impaired stem cell function. [37]

The pro-inflammatory environment generated by SASP factors accelerates the breakdown of extracellular matrix thereby worsening intervertebral disc degeneration (IVDD). [52] AMPK/p53 senescence produces a completely different SASP than IL-1 (p16INK4a) senescence, which is primarily responsible for IVDD. [53] In IVDD, SASP is secreted by nucleus pulposus and annulus fibrosus cells, resulting in extracellular matrix degradation and extracellular inflammation. [53] Senomorphics, but not senolytics have been found to alleviate symptoms without eliminating senescent cells. [53]

SASP can either promote or inhibit cancer, depending on the SASP composition, [40] notably including p53 status. [54] Despite the fact that cellular senescence likely evolved as a means of protecting against cancer early in life, SASP promotes the development of late-life cancers. [18] [44] Cancer invasiveness is promoted primarily through the actions of the SASP factors metalloproteinase, chemokine, interleukin 6 (IL-6), and interleukin 8 (IL-8). [55] [1] In fact, SASP from senescent cells is associated with many aging-associated diseases, including not only cancer, but atherosclerosis and osteoarthritis. [2] For this reason, senolytic therapy has been proposed as a generalized treatment for these and many other diseases. [2] The flavonoid apigenin has been shown to strongly inhibit SASP production. [56]

Benefits

SASP can aid in signaling to immune cells for senescent cell clearance, [57] [58] [59] [60] with specific SASP factors secreted by senescent cells attracting and activating different components of both the innate and adaptive immune system. [58] The SASP cytokine CCL2 (MCP1) recruits macrophages to remove cancer cells. [61] Although transient expression of SASP can recruit immune system cells to eliminate cancer cells as well as senescent cells, chronic SASP promotes cancer. [62] Senescent hematopoietic stem cells produce a SASP that induces an M1 polarization of macrophages which kills the senescent cells in a p53-dependent process. [63]

Autophagy is upregulated to promote survival. [51]

SASP factors can maintain senescent cells in their senescent state of growth arrest, thereby preventing cancerous transformation. [64] Additionally, SASP secreted by cells that have become senescent because of stresses can induce senescence in adjoining cells subject to the same stresses, thereby reducing cancer risk. [26]

SASP can play a beneficial role by promoting wound healing. [65] [66] SASP may play a role in tissue regeneration by signaling for senescent cell clearance by immune cells, allowing progenitor cells to repopulate tissue. [67] In development, SASP also may be used to signal for senescent cell clearance to aid tissue remodeling. [68] The ability of SASP to clear senescent cells and regenerate damaged tissue declines with age. [69] In contrast to the persistent character of SASP in the chronic inflammation of multiple age-related diseases, beneficial SASP in wound healing is transitory. [65] [66] Temporary SASP in the liver or kidney can reduce fibrosis, but chronic SASP could lead to organ dysfunction. [70] [71]

Modification

Senescent cells have permanently active mTORC1 irrespective of nutrients or growth factors, resulting in the continuous secretion of SASP. [72] By inhibiting mTORC1, rapamycin reduces SASP production by senescent cells. [72]

SASP has been reduced through inhibition of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases and janus kinase. [73]

The protein hnRNP A1 (heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1) antagonizes cellular senescence and induction of the SASP by stabilizing Oct-4 and sirtuin 1 mRNAs. [74] [75]

SASP Index

A SASP index composed of 22 SASP factors has been used to evaluate treatment outcomes of late life depression. [76] Higher SASP index scores corresponded to increased incidence of treatment failure, whereas no individual SASP factors were associated with treatment failure. [76]

Inflammaging

Chronic inflammation associated with aging has been termed inflammaging, although SASP may be only one of the possible causes of this condition. [77] Chronic systemic inflammation is associated with aging-associated diseases. [54] Senolytic agents have been recommended to counteract some of these effects. [11] Chronic inflammation due to SASP can suppress immune system function, [3] which is one reason elderly persons are more vulnerable to COVID-19. [78]

See also

References

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