On December 15, 1967, the Silver Bridge collapsed amid heavy rush-hour traffic, resulting in the deaths of 46 people, two of whom were never found. Investigation of the wreckage soon pointed to the failure of a single eyebar in one of the suspension chains as the primary cause — a finding noted in a preliminary report released within 10 months of the collapse.[5] However, to explain why that eyebar failed — a failure triggered by a flaw just 0.1 inches (2.5mm) deep, which led to a fracture — required significantly more time and effort to uncover, with the final accident report[6] taking three years to complete. The collapse led to significant changes in the way bridges in the U.S. are inspected and maintained.
The collapsed bridge was replaced by the Silver Memorial Bridge, which was completed in 1969.
History of eyebar-chain bridge construction
At the time of the Silver Bridge construction, eyebar bridges had been built for about 100 years. Such bridges had usually been constructed from redundant bar links, using rows of four to six bars, sometimes using several such chains in parallel. An example can be seen in the Clifton Suspension Bridge, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel having chain eyebars that are redundant in two dimensions; this early suspension bridge is still in service. Other bridges of similar design include the earlier road bridge over the Menai Strait built by Thomas Telford in 1826; the Széchenyi Chain Bridge in Budapest, built in 1839–1849, destroyed in the closing days of World War II by retreating Germans in 1945, and rebuilt identically by 1949, with redundant chains and hangers; and the Three Sisters, three self-anchored suspension bridges in Pittsburgh of similar design and construction period (from 1924 to 1928), each with suspension chains consisting of at least eight eyebars per link.[7]
Silver Bridge structure
Low redundancy, high strength
The eyebars in the Silver Bridge offered little to no redundancy, as each chain link consisted of just two eyebars in parallel. (Each bar was 45–55 feet long and 2 inches thick;[8] bars were joined together at the eyeholes using cylindrical pins 11.5 inches in diameter.[9]) These eyebars were made of a new, higher-strength steel (more than twice the tensile strength of other steels of that era), which meant fewer eyebars per link were needed to achieve the required strength to support the bridge (earlier such bridges often used four or more eyebars per link). However, with only two eyebars per link, the failure of one of them would hugely increase the loading on the other, making failure of a suspension chain — and the collapse of the entire bridge — far more likely. Accident investigators found that "[h]ad there been three or more eyebars per link, there would have been the possibility that the failure of one bar would not have led to disaster."[6]:123
By comparison, the Brooklyn Bridge used suspension cables made up of thousands of individual wires each to provide the cables a relatively high safety factor of six. Such a cable also has an extremely high level of redundancy, with the failure of a single wire having almost no effect on its overall strength. During the Brooklyn Bridge's construction, it was discovered that some substandard steel wire had been installed in the cables. To compensate, 150 more good steel wires were added to each cable, supplementing each's 5,434 wires. The designer's son, Washington Roebling, decided the safety factor may have been reduced, but remained more than sufficient.[10][11]
Rocker towers
The two towers that supported the two suspension chains rose nearly 131 feet (40m) from the bridge's main piers. They featured a "rocker" design, which allowed them to tilt slightly at their bases in response to unbalanced loading on the bridge, or to changes in chain length due to temperature change.[12] Prior to their use on the Silver Bridge, rocker towers had been used on a similar bridge in Brazil and, before that, on two large bridges in Europe. Although the rocker towers required the bridge's suspension chains to keep them upright, their ability to tilt allowed the towers to minimize bending stresses — which standard, fixed-base towers must be designed to resist — resulting in a simpler tower design that used less material than fixed towers, and cost significantly less to build.[13]
Early into the collapse investigation, the rocker towers provided a significant clue as to the failure's cause and location. Investigators noticed that both towers had fallen during the collapse, a strong indication that a suspension chain had broken — since neither tower could stand upright without the support of intact chains. (The towers themselves showed no sign of failure.) And the fact that both fell eastward (toward the West Virginia side) clearly indicated a chain break occurring somewhere west of the tower on the western side (i.e., Ohio side) of the bridge. (By contrast, a chain break occurring, say, in the center part of the span would have resulted in the towers falling in opposite directions, away from each other.)[6]:16
Design loads
The bridge, which was designed in 1926–27,[6]:114 generally conformed to the engineering standards of its era, according to the investigation into the bridge's collapse, and the investigation's review of the original stress calculations underlying the design found no significant errors.[6]:15 A few years earlier, in 1923, AASHO, a national standards-setting organization, had released documentation to aid engineers in designing bridges — providing quality-control specifications and guidelines on topics such as computing forces and loads, types and properties of steel, and estimating future traffic levels.[6]:115–117
The bridge's eyebars, which used a new, stronger steel, offered a maximum allowable stress of 50,000 psi, significantly higher than most other steels then in use, and the bridge had a design safety factor of 1.50, within engineering norms.[6]:118 Investigators into the collapse found no indication that the bridge had been overloaded, even on the day it failed. Despite the bridge's age and the heavy traffic on it at the time of its collapse, the load it was carrying was found to be within its normal capacity;[8] and the location where the failure occurred was at less than half the maximum "live" load it was designed to handle when the collapse began.[6]:98
Wreckage analysis
The collapsed Silver Bridge, as seen from the Ohio side
The bridge failure was due to a defect in a single link, known as eyebar 330, on the north of the Ohio subsidiary chain, the first link below the top of the Ohio tower. A small crack was formed through fretting wear at the bearing, and grew through internal corrosion, a problem known as stress corrosion cracking. The crack was only about 0.1 inches (2.5mm) deep when the link failed, breaking in a brittle fashion.[14]
When the lower side of the eyebar failed, all the load was transferred to the other side of the eyebar, which then failed by ductile overload. The joint was then held together only by three eyebars, and another slipped off the pin at the center of the bearing, so the chain was completely severed. A collapse of the entire structure was inevitable since all parts of a suspension bridge are in equilibrium with one another.
The damage to the link would have been difficult to see during inspection of the bridge:
Inspection prior to construction would not have been able to notice the tiny crack ... the only way to detect the fracture would have been to disassemble the eye-bar. The technology used for inspection at the time was not capable of detecting such cracks.[15]
Aftermath
The collapse focused much-needed attention on the condition of older bridges, leading to intensified inspection protocols and numerous eventual replacements. There were only two bridges built to a similar design, one upstream at St. Marys, West Virginia, and the notably longer Hercílio Luz Bridge at Florianópolis, Brazil. The St. Marys bridge was immediately closed to traffic and was demolished by the state in 1971. (A small truss bridge remained to allow access to an island in the river.) The Hi Carpenter Memorial Bridge was later built to replace the demolished bridge.
The Hercílio Luz Bridge remained in active service until 1991. Although both it and the Silver Bridge used the same type of high-strength steel for the eyebars,[6]:84 it was built to a higher safety factor than the West Virginia bridge and had greater redundancy, with each suspension chain using an array of four eyebars per link,[16] compared to just two per link for the Silver Bridge.[6]:123 But in 1991, the Florianópolis bridge was closed due to high levels of corrosion. Following extensive renovation, it reopened in December 2019.
Modern non-destructive testing methods allow some of the older bridges to remain in service, but with tighter weight restrictions. Most heavily used bridges of this type have been replaced with bridges of more modern design.
Memorial plaque located near the original site of the bridge
The collapse inspired legislation to ensure that older bridges were regularly inspected and maintained; however, aging infrastructure is still a problem in the United States. In 1983, the Mianus River Bridge in Greenwich, Connecticut, collapsed, causing the deaths of three drivers. In 2007, the I-35W Mississippi River bridge disaster in Minneapolis, Minnesota, resulted in 13 deaths. In early September 2009, the failure of an eyebar in the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge was discovered during a scheduled closure, resulting in an emergency repair to reinforce the failed member.
A memorial was installed in Point Pleasant to commemorate the 46 bridge-collapse victims.
A scale model of the original Silver Bridge was on display at the Point Pleasant River Museum. An archive of literature about the bridge was also kept there for public inspection. On the lower ground floor, the museum displayed an eyebar assembly from the original bridge. The museum closed on July 1, 2018, due to significant fire damage. The future of the Silver Bridge exhibit is not known.[17]https://www.pprivermuseum.com/
Another eyebar example has been erected for public viewing at a small rest area on the Ohio side of the river, along Route 7.
Reviewing the collapse and subsequent investigation in his 2012 book To Forgive Design: Understanding Failure, engineering historian Henry Petroski finds it "a cautionary tale for engineers of every kind." As a result of the thoroughness of the investigation, the cause of the disaster was precisely and indisputably found to be "a design that inadvertently made inspection all but impossible and failure all but inevitable. If ever a design was to blame for a failure, this was it."[19]
Petroski does not fault the bridge's designers, who were unaware of many of these hazards. Instead, he points to the future. "If there is anything positive about the Silver Bridge failure," he concludes, "it is that its legacy should be to remind engineers to proceed always with the utmost caution, ever mindful of the possible existence of unknown unknowns and the potential consequences of even the smallest design decisions."[19]
Author Jack Matthews wrote a novella, Beyond the Bridge, written as the diary of an imaginary survivor of the disaster starting a new life as a dishwasher in a tiny West Virginia town.
Honky tonk singer-songwriter and West Virginia native Ray Anderson released "The Silver Bridge Disaster" as the A-side of a 1967 single. Also known as Shane’s bridge.
The Silver Memorial Bridge is a cantilever bridge that spans the Ohio River between Gallipolis, Ohio, and Henderson, West Virginia. The bridge was completed in 1969 as a replacement for the collapsed Silver Bridge, although it is located about 4,300 feet (1.3km) downstream (south) of the original.[23]
The bridge carries US 35 across the river and serves as a major crossing for people and goods traveling between Charleston, West Virginia, and Southern and Central Ohio. The speed limit on the bridge is 65mph (105km/h). No toll is imposed at either end.
The original One World Trade Center was one of the Twin Towers of the original World Trade Center complex in New York City. It was completed in 1972, stood at a height of 1,368 feet (417 m), and was the tallest building in the world until 1973, when surpassed by the Willis Tower in Chicago.
The Mothman Prophecies is a 1975 book by John Keel.
A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of this type of bridge were built in the early 1800s. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a long history in many mountainous parts of the world.
The World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan, New York City, was destroyed on September 11, 2001, as a result of al-Qaeda's terror attacks. Two commercial airliners hijacked by terrorists were deliberately flown into the Twin Towers of the complex, resulting in a total progressive collapse that killed almost 3,000 people. It was the deadliest and costliest building collapse in history.
The Three Sisters are three similar self-anchored suspension bridges spanning the Allegheny River in downtown Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania at 6th, 7th, and 9th streets, generally running north–south. The bridges have been given formal names to honor important Pittsburgh residents:
The Hercílio Luz Bridge, located in Florianópolis, the capital city of Santa Catarina State in southern Brazil, is the first bridge constructed to link the Island of Santa Catarina to the mainland.
In structural engineering and construction, an eyebar is a straight bar, usually of metal, with a hole ("eye") at each end for fixing to other components. Eyebars are used in structures such as bridges, in settings in which only tension, and never compression, is applied. Also referred to as "pin- and eyebar construction" in instances where pins are being used.
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the growth of crack formation in a corrosive environment. It can lead to unexpected and sudden failure of normally ductile metal alloys subjected to a tensile stress, especially at elevated temperature. SCC is highly chemically specific in that certain alloys are likely to undergo SCC only when exposed to a small number of chemical environments. The chemical environment that causes SCC for a given alloy is often one which is only mildly corrosive to the metal. Hence, metal parts with severe SCC can appear bright and shiny, while being filled with microscopic cracks. This factor makes it common for SCC to go undetected prior to failure. SCC often progresses rapidly, and is more common among alloys than pure metals. The specific environment is of crucial importance, and only very small concentrations of certain highly active chemicals are needed to produce catastrophic cracking, often leading to devastating and unexpected failure.
The Deutz Suspension Bridge was a self-anchored suspension bridge using eyebar chains, located across the Rhine at Deutz in Cologne, Germany. It was built from 1913 to 1915. In 1935, it was named Hindenburg Bridge after Germany's second President died the previous year. It collapsed on 28 February 1945 during repair works and was replaced in 1948 by the Deutz Bridge, the world's first steel box girder bridge, designed by Fritz Leonhardt and Gerd Lohmer. H. D. Robinson, who later worked with David B. Steinman on the Florianopolis Bridge, another eyebar chain bridge, consulted on the towers for the design of this Cologne bridge. It reportedly later served as inspiration for American bridge engineers and was specifically cited as a design influence on the Three Sisters bridges in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania as well as for the Kiyosu Bridge on the Sumida River in Tokyo.
The Kittanning Citizens Bridge is a through truss bridge spanning the Allegheny River at Kittanning in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. Constructed in 1932, the bridge carries vehicles and pedestrians between Kittanning and West Kittanning.
The Hi Carpenter Memorial Bridge is a cantilever bridge over the Ohio River between Newport, Ohio and St. Marys, West Virginia. It carries Ohio State Route 807 and West Virginia Route 807 and serves to connect WV 2 with OH 7.
Progressive collapse is the process where a primary structural element fails, resulting in the failure of adjoining structural elements, which in turn causes further structural failure.
The original Two World Trade Center was one of the Twin Towers in the original World Trade Center Complex in New York City. The Tower was completed and opened in 1973 at a height of 1,362 feet (415 m) to the roof, distinguishable from its twin, the North Tower, by the absence of a television antenna. On the 107th floor of this building was a popular tourist attraction called "Top of the World Trade Center Observatories," and on the roof was an outdoor observation deck accessible to the public and a disused helipad at the center. The address of this building was 2 World Trade Center, with the WTC complex having its own ZIP code of 10048.
The Willow Island disaster was the collapse of a cooling tower under construction at the Pleasants Power Station at Willow Island, West Virginia, on April 27, 1978. Fifty-one construction workers were killed. It is thought to be the deadliest construction accident in U.S. history.
Structural integrity and failure is an aspect of engineering that deals with the ability of a structure to support a designed structural load without breaking and includes the study of past structural failures in order to prevent failures in future designs.
The Market Street Bridge is a suspension bridge connecting Market Street in Steubenville, Ohio and West Virginia Route 2 in Follansbee, West Virginia over the Ohio River. As a project of the Steubenville Bridge Company, it was constructed in 1905 by the Ohio Steel Erection Company, the framework was created by the Penn Bridge Company, and the original steel was done by Jones and Laughlin Steel Company and Bethlehem Steel. The bridge spans a length of 1,794 feet (547 m) with a width of 20.7 feet (6.3 m). As of 2002, the average daily traffic was estimated around 15,000 vehicles. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2019.
The NIST World Trade Center Disaster Investigation was a report that the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) conducted to establish the likely technical causes of the three building failures that occurred at the World Trade Center following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. The report was mandated as part of the National Construction Safety Team Act, which was signed into law on October 1, 2002 by President George W. Bush. NIST issued its final report on the collapse of the World Trade Center's twin towers in September 2005, and the agency issued its final report on 7 World Trade Center in November 2008.
Yarmouth suspension bridge spanned the River Bure at Great Yarmouth, Norfolk from 1829 until its collapse in 1845. The bridge was widened in 1832, which had not been anticipated by the original design. On 2 May 1845, the bridge collapsed under load from a crowd who had gathered to watch a circus stunt on the river. Some 79 people, mainly children, were killed. An investigation found fault with the design and quality of the bridge. A modern-day memorial marks the site of the disaster.
A chain bridge is a historic form of suspension bridge for which chains or eyebars were used instead of wire ropes to carry the bridge deck. A famous example is the Széchenyi Chain Bridge in Budapest.
A fracture critical bridge is a bridge or similar span that is vulnerable to collapse of one or more spans as a result of the failure in tension of a single element. While a fracture critical design is not considered unsafe, it is subject to special inspection requirements that focus on the tension elements of its structure.
↑ Passaglia, Elio (1999). "The Investigation of the Point Pleasant Bridge Collapse". NIST Digital Archives. National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 4 November 2023. Excerpt of 'A Unique Institution: The National Bureau of Standards, 1950–1969,' by Elio Passaglia, NIST Special Publication 925.
↑ Passaglia, Elio (1999). "The Investigation of the Point Pleasant Bridge Collapse". NIST Digital Archives. National Institute of Standards and Technology. p.577. Retrieved 4 November 2023. Excerpt of 'A Unique Institution: The National Bureau of Standards, 1950–1969,' by Elio Passaglia, NIST Special Publication 925.
↑ Lichtenstein, Abba G. (November 1993). "The Silver Bridge Collapse Recounted". Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, ASCE. 7 (4): 249–261. Retrieved 26 April 2024.
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