Slavery at American colleges and universities

Last updated
Thomas Jefferson, Founding Father of the United States and prominent holder of hundreds of enslaved persons, founded the University of Virginia Official Presidential portrait of Thomas Jefferson (by Rembrandt Peale, 1800)(cropped).jpg
Thomas Jefferson, Founding Father of the United States and prominent holder of hundreds of enslaved persons, founded the University of Virginia

The role of slavery at American colleges and universities has been a recent focus of historical investigation and controversy. Enslaved Africans labored to build institutions of higher learning in the United States, and the slave economy was involved in funding many universities. [1] Enslaved persons were used to build academic buildings and residential halls. [1] Though slavery has often been seen as a uniquely Southern institution, colleges and universities in Northern states benefited from the labor of slaves. [2] [3] The economics of slavery brought some slave owners great wealth, enabling them to become major donors to fledgling colleges. [4] Until the Civil War (1861–1865), slavery as an institution was legal and many colleges and universities utilized enslaved people and benefited from the slavocracy. In some cases, enslaved persons were sold by university administrators to generate capital, notably Georgetown University, a Catholic institution. [5] In some parts of the nation it was also not uncommon for wealthy students to bring an enslaved person with them to college. [6] Ending almost 250 years of slavocracy did not end white supremacy, structural racism, or other forms of oppression at American colleges and the legacy of slavery still persists in many establishments. [7] [8]

Contents

In 2004, Ira Berlin observed that the study of slavery at universities can be controversial and can lead to tense debates. [9] "Accompanied by the charge that the interpreters have said too much (why do you dwell upon it?) or too little (why can't you face the truth?)." [9] : 1260  He contends that by reckoning with slavery, “Americans—white and black—can have a past that is both memorable and, at last, a past.” [9] : 1268 

In 2006, Brown University became the first university to publish a report detailing its ties to slavery. [10] Over the following decades, a number of American colleges and universities have made efforts to research, address, and teach about their historical connections to slavery. In 2014, a number of institutions led by the University of Virginia established Universities Studying Slavery (USS), an informal working group and later consortium dedicated to investigating institutional histories as they relate to slavery or racism. [11] Efforts and calls to address historical connections to slavery and enduring racism at American universities were renewed in the wake of the 2020 George Floyd protests. [12] [13]

Brown University

Brown's Slavery Memorial was installed adjacent to University Hall. The hall was built in part by enslaved laborers and funded in part by slave traders Brown University Slavery memorial.jpg
Brown's Slavery Memorial was installed adjacent to University Hall. The hall was built in part by enslaved laborers and funded in part by slave traders

A number of Brown University's founders and early administrators owned slaves. Among them were Stephen Hopkins, Brown's first chancellor; and James Manning, the college's first president.

The Brown family

The Brown family, the university's namesake, were instrumental in the establishment and endowment of the college. They owned slaves and participated in the slave trade, investing in two slaving voyages (1736 and 1759). [14] Compared to fellow members of Rhode Island's elite mercantile class, the Browns were not major slave traders. [15] According to historian Joanne Melish, "many Providence residents held more slaves than John Brown." [14] : 114 

The family's relationship with slavery was neither monolithic nor constant. In 1773, Moses Brown experienced an emotional and spiritual crisis which led to his conversion to Quakerism. At that time, Moses, who had previously enslaved six people, renounced chattel slavery. Moses freed his slaves the same year, writing: [15] : 19 

Whereas I am clearly convinced that the buying and selling of men of what color soever is contrary to the Divine Mind manifest in the conscience of all men however some may smother and neglect its reprovings, and being also made sensible that the holding of negroes in slavery however kindly treated has a tendency to encourage the iniquitous practice of importing them from their native country and is contrary to that justice, mercy, and humanity enjoined as the duty of every Christian.

Over the following years, Moses emerged as a prominent abolitionist and began an anti-slavery crusade. These views clashed with those of his brother, John, who defend the practice, leading to a period of vocal public debate between the two. [15] John Brown continued to participate in the international slave trade into the 1790s, following its federal abolition. For this violation, John was tried in federal court, making him the first person charged under the law. [15]

Brown's oldest building, University Hall, maintains a number of connections to slavery. Prominent Newport merchant and slave trader Aaron Lopez donated timber to the building project while the company of fellow slave trader Nicholas Brown Sr. led the construction. The workforce involved in the construction of the building was diverse, reflecting the ethnic and social admixture of colonial Providence's population. Slaves, free people of color, indigenous people, and white skilled and unskilled laborers worked to erect the structure. [16] [17]

Slavery and Justice Report

Ruth J. Simmons, the first African American president of an Ivy League institution, spearheaded Brown's modern response to its legacy of slavery. DrRuthJSimmons.jpg
Ruth J. Simmons, the first African American president of an Ivy League institution, spearheaded Brown's modern response to its legacy of slavery.

In 2003, then-University president Ruth Simmons launched a steering committee to research its eighteenth-century ties to slavery. In October 2006, the committee released a report documenting its findings. [15] [18] Entitled "Slavery and Justice," the document detailed the ways that the university benefited both directly and indirectly from the transatlantic slave trade and the labor of enslaved people. The report included seven recommendations for how the university should address this legacy. [19] Brown has since completed a number of these recommendations, including the establishment of the Center for the Study of Slavery and Justice and the funding of a $10 million permanent endowment for Providence Public Schools. [19] [20] Brown's Slavery and Justice report marked the first major effort by an American university to address its ties to slavery and prompted other institutions to do the same. [21] [22]

Memorialization

In September 2014, the university erected a memorial to acknowledge the institution's connection to the trans-Atlantic slave trade and memorialize the Africans and African Americans, both enslaved and free, who were instrumental in the building of the school. Its creation was one of the recommendations established in Brown's 2006 Slavery and Justice report. [23] The memorial, designed by contemporary sculptor Martin Puryear and located adjacent to University Hall, resembles a massive ball and chain half submerged in the ground. [23]

Reparations

In a 2021 vote, more than 80% of participating Brown University students voted in favor of a non-binding referendum calling for the university to pay reparations to the descendants of people enslaved by its founders and benefactors. [24] [25] In April 2021, President Christina Paxson declined to commit to a university policy of direct financial compensation to descendants of enslaved people, calling the issue a "really complicated question." [26]

Columbia University

Columbia University (then known as King's College) was formed in 1754. By the end of the Civil War, ten men had served as president of the school; of those, at least half were slave-owners, as were the first four treasurers of the school.

The report, Columbia University and Slavery identifies the slave owners among its first presidents: Samuel Johnson, Benjamin Moore, William Samuel Johnson, William Alexander Duer, and Frederick A. P. Barnard. Duer's family wealth derived from the transatlantic slave trade. [27] [28] [29] The school does not appear to have ever owned any slaves directly. [30] Since a 2015 course on the school's connections to slavery, Columbia has maintained a website with the findings. [31]

Barnard College

Frederick A. P. Barnard, namesake of Barnard College, owned enslaved persons while at the University of Alabama, but he returned to the North during the Civil War. Barnard (45659026011).jpg
Frederick A. P. Barnard, namesake of Barnard College, owned enslaved persons while at the University of Alabama, but he returned to the North during the Civil War.

The namesake of Barnard College, Frederick A. P. Barnard enslaved an unknown number of people, many of whose names are absent in official records. [33] [32] The women's college is named after him in part due to his support for coeducation of women and men. [32] [33]

Sometime after he began working at the University of Alabama, Barnard acquired enslaved persons. [32] Some worked as research assistants in his labs, including one named Sam, [33] [32] while others served as domestic servants in his home. [33] During his time in Alabama, Barnard also allegedly sexually abused enslaved black women, a behavior tolerated by his peers on the faculty. [32] A list of other enslaved people associated with Barnard in Alabama included: "Little Mary", Morgan, Luna, Tom, and Johnson. [33] Barnard described his 16 years at the University of Alabama as "some of the happiest and most fruitful years of his life". [33]

One of the people he enslaved, Jane, was assaulted in 1859 by a student while she was working for Barnard at the University of Mississippi. [33] [32] Barnard, who was away at the time of the assault, sought expulsion of the offending student by the university faculty. [33] [32] It is unclear whether Barnard's motivation for this was retributive justice for Jane or restitution for himself after the intrusion on his home and lost labor as Jane recovered. [32] Jane did not get justice since her testimony was not deemed credible according to Mississippi law, and the faculty did not expel her assailant. [33] This incident created a wedge between Barnard and the rest of the university establishment, leading to his eventual departure - in which he left much of his property, including his slaves, behind. [33]

Barnard colleagues at universities in the South, viewed him with suspicion in large part due to his Northern upbringing. [33] Despite being a slaveowner, he was often suspected by his peers of having sympathies for the abolitionist cause. [33] [32] In response to claims of being an abolitionist sympathizer, Barnard continually reiterated his support for the South and for the institution of slavery. [32] However, upon his return to the North during the Civil War, Barnard published an open letter to Abraham Lincoln in which he affirmed loyalty to the Union and defended past pro-slavery statements as necessary political strategy. [33] [34]

Dartmouth College

Dartmouth's founder Eleazar Wheelock held at least 18 enslaved black people during his lifetime. [35] [36] Eight slaves accompanied Wheelock when he established Dartmouth's Hanover campus in 1770. According to Craig Wilder "there were more slaves than faculty, administrators, or active trustees; in fact, there were arguably as many enslaved black people at Dartmouth as there were students in the college course, and Wheelock's slaves outnumbered his Native American students." [6]

Dartmouth College president Nathan Lord defended slavery in the lead up to the American Civil War, causing controversy and leading to his eventual resignation. [37]

Georgetown University

1838 Jesuit slave sale

Thomas F. Mulledy orchestrated the sale of 272 enslaved people to pay Georgetown College's debts Thomas F. Mulledy.jpg
Thomas F. Mulledy orchestrated the sale of 272 enslaved people to pay Georgetown College's debts

Founded in 1789 as a Catholic educational institution, Georgetown College (now Georgetown University) was in financial straits in 1838. The decision was taken to sell church property in the form of 272 enslaved persons owned by the Maryland Province of the Society of Jesus. The 1838 Jesuit slave sale generated cash, about 10% of which was used to satisfy Georgetown's debts. The slaves had lived on plantations belonging to the Jesuits in Maryland, and they were sold to Henry Johnson of Louisiana and Jesse Batey. The sale price was $115,000, equivalent to $3,290,438in 2023. [38] Of the $25,000 down-payment, $17,000 was used to pay down building debt that Thomas F. Mulledy, the provincial superior who orchestrated the sale, had previously accrued as Georgetown's president. [39] [40] [41]

The Jesuits has a documented history at Georgetown of callousness toward enslaved persons. In 1821, Georgetown's procurator objected to the food served to the enslaved peoples who were on campus as being too expensive and generous. He wrote that the slave rations were “carried there in abundance” and called for more austere food provisions. [42]

21st century response

Isaac Hawkins Hall at Georgetown University was renamed in 2017 after Hawkins, the first enslaved person listed in the 1838 sale document Isaac Hawkins Hall Georgetown University.jpg
Isaac Hawkins Hall at Georgetown University was renamed in 2017 after Hawkins, the first enslaved person listed in the 1838 sale document

National revelations of this connection were reported in a 2016 article in The New York Times by Rachel L. Swarns. [43] In response to the revelations, Georgetown University held a service called the "Liturgy of Remembrance, Contrition and Hope." At the liturgy, Fr. Timothy Kesicki, the president of the Jesuit Conference of Canada and the United States, said, “Those 272 souls...received the same sacraments, read from the same scriptures, prayed the same prayers, sang the same hymns, and praised the same God—how did we, the Society of Jesus, fail to see us all as one body in Christ? We betrayed the very name of Jesus for whom our least Society is named.” [44]

Following broad publicity regarding the transaction, the university moved to rename two buildings that bore the names of Jesuits at Georgetown who had played significant roles in the 1838 sale, Thomas Mulledy and William McSherry. In November 2015, Mulledy Hall was renamed Freedom Hall and McSherry Hall was renamed Remembrance Hall as temporary measures while other names were being considered. [45] In 2017, the two buildings were rededicated in the names of Isaac, the first slave listed in the 1838 sale document, and Anne Marie Becraft, a free woman of color who established a school in Georgetown for black girls. [46]

Hamilton College

Hamilton College's alumni included several abolitionists and the school was among several New England colleges where abolitionist groups formed in the 1830s.[ citation needed ] The groups were inspired by William Lloyd Garrison's American Anti-Slavery Society. The New York State Legislature threatened to withhold funding, leading the college's president, Joseph Penny, to ban the group. [47]

The college's namesake, Alexander Hamilton, grew up in the Caribbean and saw plantation slavery first-had there. His patron at King's College was a slave owner. Hamilton married into the prominent New York Schyler family, which owned slaves. [48] He was generally opposed to slavery, but his writings did not prioritize it as an issue. He was involved in the early emancipation movement there is recently uncovered evidence that he was a slave owner and also sold or leased some of his slaves. [49] [50]

Harvard University

Following the lead of the project at Brown University to uncover that institution's ties to slavery, a graduate seminar at Harvard researched Harvard's ties, producing a report in 2011. Sven Beckert, then graduate student Katherine Stevens, and the students of the Harvard and Slavery Research Seminar published a report about Harvard and its ties to slavery. [51] [52] The report begins by locating Harvard's ties to slavery in the larger concepts of American slavery, Northern slavery, and Triangular Trade. The report notes that, “by the mid-seventeenth century, slaves were part of the fabric of everyday life in colonial Massachusetts. They lived and labored in the colony. Their owners were often political leaders and heads of prominent families.” [51] Slaves “served Harvard leaders" and "slave labor played a vital role in the unprecedented appreciation of wealth by New England merchants that laid the foundation of Harvard.” [51] Research published in 2017 states that “Harvard students slept in beds and ate meals prepared by slaves, and many grew up to be prominent slave-holders and leaders in early America." [53]

Finally, in 2019 university president Larry Bacow created The Initiative on Harvard and the Legacy of Slavery in an effort to better understand Harvard's historic ties with slavery and the slave trade, and the impacts of those ties on the modern university. [54] A committee was formed to examine and research the history, led by Tomiko Brown-Nagin, Dean of the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, and including Sven Beckert, Paul Farmer, Annette Gordon-Reed, Stephen Gray, Evelynn Hammonds, Nancy Koehn, Meira Levinson, Tiya Miles, Martha Minow, Maya Sen, Daniel Smith, David Williams, and William Julius Wilson. [54]

The report was released in April 2022 and found that Harvard had extensive ties to slavery. Harvard affiliates, including past presidents and faculty, enslaved more than 70 people during the earliest years, many of whom served the college's earliest students. It also documented that the university continued to benefit financially from slavery even after it was outlawed in Massachusetts in 1783, via the financial support of donors enriched by the slave trade and the trading of goods harvested by enslaved people. [55]

Also in the report were recommendations from the committee on how the university should move forward and redress its legacy of slavery. Among them were educational support for descendent communities, memorialization of enslaved persons, forming partnerships with Historically Black Colleges and Universities, and directly engaging and identifying descendants, among others. [56]

Bacow and members of the Harvard Corporation unanimously agreed to accept the recommendations and committed $100 million to their short- and long-term implementation. Martha Minow, a University Professor and former Dean of Harvard Law School, was appointed to lead the implementation. [57]

Harvard Law School

The seal of Harvard Law School used between 1936 and 2016. Coat of arms (seal, emblem, shield) of Harvard Law School.png
The seal of Harvard Law School used between 1936 and 2016.

Isaac Royall Jr. was a wealthy merchant who donated land and funds to the university. He also funded the first professorship in law. The Royalls were so involved in the slave trade that "the labor of slaves underwrote the teaching of law in Cambridge." [51] The Royall's legacy at Harvard is lasting: Harvard Law School adopted the family's crest as a part of its own. That crest features a blue background with three bushels of wheat. Until recently this connection was unknown to many. [59] [60] After it was revealed that Harvard Law had historic ties to slavery, Dean Martha L. Minow began telling incoming law students about the school's past. The law school retired the seal in 2016 and in 2019 announced the formation of a working group to design a new one. [60] [61] In August 2021, the school unveiled a new seal featuring an abstract motif inspired by the architecture of Austin Hall and Hauser Hall. [62] In conjunction with the university's release of the Report on Harvard and the Legacy of Slavery in spring of 2022, the Law School announced the permanent retirement of the Royal Chair, which was funded by an original gift from the Royal family, would be retired and never occupied again. [63]

At the law school's bicentennial in 2017, President Drew Faust, Dean John Manning, and Professor Annette Gordon-Reed unveiled a new commemorative plaque to the slaves who helped build the schools. Faust said of the law school, "How fitting that you should begin your bicentennial with this ceremony reminding us that the path toward justice is neither smooth nor straight. Let us dedicate ourselves to the clear-eyed view of history that will enable us to build a more just future in honor of the stolen lives we memorialize here." [64]

Photographs

Harvard was sued in 2019 by descendants of an enslaved man whose daguerreotype is in the possession of the university. According to the lawsuit, the university profits off of the publication of the photographs without permission of the enslaved man's descendants. [65] In 2021, Middlesex County Superior Court Judge Camille Sarrouf dismissed the case, writing "the law as it currently stands, does not confer a property interest to the subject of a photograph regardless of how objectionable the photograph's origins may be." [66]

In the 1990s, artist Carrie Mae Weems used the photograph in a series entitled "From Here I Saw What Happened and I Cried." [67]

Johns Hopkins University

In 2020, researchers discovered Johns Hopkins University's founder and namesake, Johns Hopkins, had enslaved at least 4 people. Hopkinsp.jpg
In 2020, researchers discovered Johns Hopkins University's founder and namesake, Johns Hopkins, had enslaved at least 4 people.

In 2020, historians at Johns Hopkins University discovered that its founder, original benefactor and namesake, Johns Hopkins, claimed four men as property in the 1850 census. [68] [69] Hopkins had also used slaves as collateral for debt. [68]

Prior to the discovery, the university had held its founder was a "strong abolitionist," based on the representation of Hopkins in a 1929 publication written by his grandniece and published by the school's press. [68] The main claim being that Johns Hopkins' parents freed all their slaves by 1807. [68] [69] Many also pointed to his specification that people of any race should be cared for in his hospital and his encouragement for the trustees of the hospital to establish an orphanage for black children. [69] This information may have remained unknown for so long due to the fact that most of Hopkins' personal papers were destroyed or lost since his death. [69]

According to the university, "the current research... finds no evidence to substantiate [the] description of Johns Hopkins as an abolitionist." [68] [70] In an open letter the university's president, Ronald J. Daniels, stated the findings "complicate the understanding" of the school towards its founder. [68] [70]

University of Pennsylvania

Benjamin Franklin, founder of the University of Pennsylvania, owned seven slaves in his early life, and published 277 advertisements for the sale of enslaved people and owned some enslaved persons before the Revolution. Ben franklin statue in front of College Hall, Univ. of Pennsylvania.jpg
Benjamin Franklin, founder of the University of Pennsylvania, owned seven slaves in his early life, and published 277 advertisements for the sale of enslaved people and owned some enslaved persons before the Revolution.

The University of Pennsylvania's founders, benefactors, trustees, and faculty included slave owners or those profiting from the institution. Among these were the university's founder and first president, Benjamin Franklin, who earlier in life ran advertisements for the sale of enslaved people in his newspaper, the Pennsylvania Gazette [71] and held seven slaves working in his business and household. [72] His views evolved over time and he was a founder of the first anti-slavery society in America and sought to link emancipation to the Revolution. [73] [74]

In 2017, the university began the Penn & Slavery Project to explore the connections of its funders, trustees, and faculty to slavery as well as uncover the stories of people enslaved by them. [75] [76] Among the trustees of the university who enslaved people were John Cadwalader, Benjamin Chew, Benjamin Franklin, Isaac Norris, William Plumsted, James Potter, Joseph Reed, and Thomas Willing. [77]

Caesar was one enslaved man who worked at the university from 1756 to 1770. [78] He was enslaved by Ebenezer Kinnersley, a colleague of Benjamin Franklin and faculty member. [79] Caesar's duties on the early university campus included ringing the school bell and building fires for the students, but Kinnersley was paid by the university for Caesar's work. [78] [79] It is unclear if Caesar was ever freed. [78] Caesar's Bell became the symbol for the Penn & Slavery Project as it had rested in the Van Pelt Library without acknowledgement of Caesar's work. [78]

Princeton University

Sixteen out of Princeton University's first twenty-three trustees "bought, sold, traded, or inherited slaves during their lifetimes" and the school had "deep and intimate ties to human bondage." [80] The first nine presidents of Princeton University enslaved people. [81] Upon the death of its fifth president, Samuel Finley, in 1766, the people he held captive were auctioned on campus. [81] [82] [83] John Maclean Jr. (1854-1868) was the first president to not forcibly hold people against their will. [82] Princeton also had connections to the colonization movement which aimed to stop the Atlantic Slave Trade but also repatriate emancipated slaves to Africa as they were perceived as a burden on public resources. [83] [84] [81]

White supremacy and structural racism at Princeton did not end with the end of the slavocracy. Princeton President Woodrow Wilson (1902-1910), for example, was an avowed white supremacist. [85]

Rutgers University

The namesake of Rutgers was Henry Rutgers, a trustee of the institution. [86] [87] He was a third generation slave owner and as a real estate developer he used slave labor to build his own wealth. [86] [87]

Rutgers has a long history of involvement with the slave trade. Some of the founders, early benefactors, and early presidents were involved in the slave trade. [2] [87] During the Revolutionary War the college relocated the homestead of slave owner. [87] The first president of Rutgers (then Queen's College), Jacob Rutsen Hardenbergh was a slaveholder, among his slaves was Sojourner Truth who later escaped to freedom. [87] [88] [89] Rutgers University's oldest extant building, Old Queens, was built in part by enslaved laborers including one man named Will. [87] [90]

Shortly before Rutgers University reached its 250th anniversary Chancellor-Provost Richard Edwards announced the formation of the Committee on Enslaved and Disenfranchised Populations in Rutgers History. [91] [92] This committee created the Scarlet and Black Project which published 3 volumes of books by the same name and digital archives covering the entire racial history of Rutgers. [92]

Additionally the committee put forward recommendations including explicit acknowledgement on campus of its history, establishing and expanding affirmative action programs, commissioning a memorial for the dispossessed and enslaved, renaming buildings, funding of further research, and making a diversity course required for all students. [93]

University of Virginia

Thomas Jefferson, founder of the University of Virginia, enslaved more than 600 people in his lifetime Close view of Statue and Rotunda at University of Virginia (cropped).jpg
Thomas Jefferson, founder of the University of Virginia, enslaved more than 600 people in his lifetime

The University of Virginia in Charlottesville, Virginia owned and rented slaves for decades. [95] Between 1817 and 1865, approximately 4,000 enslaved people worked on the University of Virginia's campus. [96] All of the men involved in the founding of the university were slaveowners. [95] These individuals maintained the university's grounds, worked to construct buildings, served the students and faculty, and sometimes lived in quarters below student residences. [95] [97] The majority of students during this period were able to attend due to the wealth of their slave-owning families, though these students were not permitted to bring their own slaves. [95]

After the Civil War, though the slaves of the university gained their freedom they were still employed for very low wages. [95]

Thomas Jefferson

The University of Virginia's founder, Thomas Jefferson enslaved more than 600 African American people during his lifetime. [94] [95] Most historians believe that after the death of his wife Martha, Jefferson had a decades-long relationship with her half-sister, Sally Hemings, a slave at his plantation, Monticello. [98] [99] According to DNA evidence from surviving descendants and oral history, Jefferson probably fathered at least six children with Hemings, including four that survived to adulthood. [100] Many argue that given her position, Hemings was not able to consent to sexual contact, making Jefferson's actions rape. [101]

When establishing the University of Virginia Jefferson's vision was that it would be an institution to protect against the abolitionists of the North. [95] Jefferson's own slaves were involved in the construction of the university. [95]

Memorial to Enslaved Laborers

In 2020, the university completed the construction of its Memorial to Enslaved Laborers. Designed by Höweler+Yoon, the memorial honors the community of enslaved African American laborers that constructed and facilitated the operation of the university. [102] [96] [103] [95]

College of William & Mary

The College of William & Mary, founded in 1693, benefited from enslaved labor from its inception in 1693 until the Emancipation Proclamation made slavery illegal in 1863. An academic inquiry into its slavery history, the Lemon Project, is underway. [104]

Between 1760 and 1765, the Prince George House may have been used by English philanthropists, the Associates of Dr. Bray (named for Thomas Bray), to Christianize and educate local enslaved and free black children. Adam and Fanny, two children who were enslaved by William & Mary, attended the school at its second location, assumed to have been on Capitol Landing Road in Williamsburg.[ citation needed ]

Furman University

Standing above the central campus of Furman University, a sculpture of Joseph Vaughn ('68), the first African-American undergraduate. The statue was erected by the Board of Trustees as a reparative action in response to the Seeking Abraham report's documenting of slavery and historical harms in the university's past. Joseph Vaughn Sculpture.jpg
Standing above the central campus of Furman University, a sculpture of Joseph Vaughn ('68), the first African-American undergraduate. The statue was erected by the Board of Trustees as a reparative action in response to the Seeking Abraham report's documenting of slavery and historical harms in the university's past.

On October 26, 2016, Marian Baker wrote an article in the student newspaper The Paladin discussing the Furman family's history of slaveholding and questioning a plaque on the humanities building named in honor the university's first president, James C. Furman. [105] In response, the university joined Universities Studying Slavery in 2017, commissioning a Task Force on Slavery and Justice. [106] The task force's report came out a year later under the title "Seeking Abraham" with documentation of the university namesake Richard Furman's leadership in Baptist views on slavery, as well as responding to the questions regarding James C. Furman raised by Marian Baker. [107] [108] The title of the report refers to Abraham Sims, who was enslaved by the Furman family but was referred to as an "ex-slave" in a 1890 photo of the Furman home, the search for information on Abraham is used as an analogy for the reports wider goal of searching for the whole history of Furman University. [107] The report also documented the movement of the university due to its reliance on funding from slavers, use of slave labor in building the original Greenville (South Carolina) campus, and the legacies of slavery up to the present day. [107] It also focused on resistance to desegregation at the university, the experience of black students encountering racism and micro-aggressions, and limited African-American attendance throughout the twentieth century. [107]

In response, the Furman University Board of Trustees voted to approve the report's accuracy and commit to repair historical harms, including a reparation scholarship that benefited African-American students, especially those who live in the historic locations of the college. [109] Trustees installed a plaque that renamed the building "Furman Hall" instead of "James C. Furman Hall," and drew attention to the racist arguments Furman had used to support secession. [110] An annual event Joseph Vaughn Day began in 2019 and a central plaza on campus Joseph Vaughn Plaza was installed in 2020. [111] Clark Murphy Residential Housing Complex became the first building on campus named for an African-American person, a person enslaved by the Greenville Woman's College that merged with Furman University in the 1930s. [112] The mission and values statement of the university was significantly altered the same year to reflect the university's changed perspective on its history, to say, "As we draw lessons from thoughtful consideration of our university’s past, we advocate respect for all people and actively welcome perspectives from a wide variety of backgrounds, cultures, and beliefs." [113]

Yale University

Elihu Yale and family with enslaved child Elihu Yale by an unknown artist.jpeg
Elihu Yale and family with enslaved child

Yale University is named for slave trader and merchant Elihu Yale. According to historian Craig Steven Wilder, Yale also "inherited a small slave plantation in Rhode Island that it used to fund its first graduate programs and its first scholarships... [the university] aggressively sought out opportunities to benefit from the slave economies of New England and the broader Atlantic world." [114]

Yale's Berkeley College is named for slave owner George Berkeley. Yale University - Central Campus Architecture - New Haven CT - USA - 03.jpg
Yale's Berkeley College is named for slave owner George Berkeley.

In 1998, the university established the Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Abolition at the MacMillan Center for International and Area Studies.

The legacy of slavery at Yale was addressed in the February 2002 edition of the Yale Alumni Magazine. [115]

In 2017, following years of protest, Yale University renamed Calhoun College — one of its residential colleges — to Grace Hopper College. The college had previously been named for Vice President John C. Calhoun, a South Carolina slave owner and anti-abolitionist. [116] [117] [118] Other buildings have retained the names of slave owners, including Bishop George Berkeley, Timothy Dwight and Ezra Stiles. [119]

In 2024, Yale faculty member David W. Blight published a history of Yale and slavery. [120]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brown University</span> Private university in Rhode Island, U.S

Brown University is a private Ivy League research university in Providence, Rhode Island. It is the seventh-oldest institution of higher education in the United States, founded in 1764 as the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. One of nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution, it was the first U.S. college to codify that admission and instruction of students was to be equal regardless of the religious affiliation of students.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ivy League</span> Athletic conference of eight elite American universities

The Ivy League is an American collegiate athletic conference of eight private research universities in the Northeastern United States. It participates in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I, and in football, in the Football Championship Subdivision (FCS). The term Ivy League is used more broadly to refer to the eight schools that belong to the league, which are globally-renowned as elite colleges associated with academic excellence, highly selective admissions, and social elitism. The term was used as early as 1933, and it became official in 1954 following the formation of the Ivy League athletic conference.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Harvard Law School</span> Law school of Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts

Harvard Law School (HLS) is the law school of Harvard University, a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1817, Harvard Law School is the oldest law school in continuous operation in the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">John Witherspoon</span> American Founding Father and minister (1723–1794)

John Witherspoon was a Scottish-American Presbyterian minister, educator, farmer, slaveholder, and a Founding Father of the United States. Witherspoon embraced the concepts of Scottish common sense realism, and while president of the College of New Jersey became an influential figure in the development of the United States' national character. Politically active, Witherspoon was a delegate from New Jersey to the Second Continental Congress and a signatory to the July 4, 1776, Declaration of Independence. He was the only active clergyman and the only college president to sign the Declaration. Later, he signed the Articles of Confederation and supported ratification of the Constitution of the United States.

Reparations for slavery is the application of the concept of reparations to victims of slavery or their descendants. There are concepts for reparations in legal philosophy and reparations in transitional justice. In the US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling in court and/or given voluntarily by individuals and institutions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Furman University</span> Private university in Greenville, South Carolina, US

Furman University is a private university in Greenville, South Carolina, United States. Founded in 1826 and named after Baptist pastor Richard Furman, the liberal arts university is the oldest private institution of higher learning in South Carolina. It became a secular university in 1992, while keeping Christo et Doctrinae as its motto. As of Fall 2021, it enrolls approximately 2,300 undergraduate students and 150 graduate students on its 750-acre (304 ha) campus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ruth Simmons</span> American scholar and academic administrator (born 1945)

Ruth Simmons is an American professor and academic administrator. Simmons served as the eighth president of Prairie View A&M University, a HBCU, from 2017 until 2023. From 2001 to 2012, she served as the 18th president of Brown University, where she was the first African-American president of an Ivy League institution. While there, Simmons was named best college president by Time magazine. Before Brown University, she headed Smith College, one of the Seven Sisters and the largest women's college in the United States, beginning in 1995. There, during her presidency, the first accredited program in engineering was started at an all-women's college.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of slavery in New Jersey</span>

Slavery in New Jersey began in the early 17th century, when the Dutch trafficked African slaves for labor to develop the colony of New Netherland. After England took control of the colony in 1664, Britain continued the importation of slaves from Africa. They also imported "seasoned" slaves from their colonies in the West Indies and enslaved Native Americans from the Carolinas.

Rutgers University is an institution of higher learning with campuses across the State of New Jersey its main flagship campus in New Brunswick and Piscataway, and two other campuses in the cities of Newark and Camden, New Jersey.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of slavery in New York (state)</span>

The trafficking of enslaved Africans to what became New York began as part of the Dutch slave trade. The Dutch West India Company trafficked eleven enslaved Africans to New Amsterdam in 1626, with the first slave auction held in New Amsterdam in 1655. With the second-highest proportion of any city in the colonies, more than 42% of New York City households enslaved African people by 1703, often as domestic servants and laborers. Others worked as artisans or in shipping and various trades in the city. Enslaved Africans were also used in farming on Long Island and in the Hudson Valley, as well as the Mohawk Valley region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Brown University</span>

The history of Brown University spans 260 years. Founded in 1764 as the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Brown is the seventh-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and the third-oldest institution of higher education in New England. At its foundation, the university was the first in the U.S. to accept students regardless of their religious affiliation. Brown's medical program is the third-oldest in New England while its engineering program is the oldest in the Ivy League.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jonathan A. C. Brown</span> American scholar of Islamic studies (born 1977)

Jonathan Andrew Cleveland Brown, born August 7, 1977, is a university academic and American scholar of Islamic studies. Since 2012, he has served as an associate professor at Georgetown University's Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service. He holds the Alwaleed bin Talal Chair of Islamic Civilization at Georgetown University.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abolitionism in the United States</span> Movement to end slavery in the United States

In the United States, abolitionism, the movement that sought to end slavery in the country, was active from the colonial era until the American Civil War, the end of which brought about the abolition of American slavery, except as punishment for a crime, through the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.

On June 19, 1838, the Maryland Province of the Society of Jesus agreed to sell 272 slaves to two Louisiana planters, Henry Johnson and Jesse Batey, for $115,000. This sale was the culmination of a contentious and long-running debate among the Maryland Jesuits over whether to keep, sell, or free their slaves, and whether to focus on their rural estates or on their growing urban missions, including their schools.

The Department of History at Harvard University is a department of history located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. The school offers bachelor's degrees in history, master's degrees in history, doctorate degrees in history, and a certificate in digital history. The department ranks as one of the top history departments in the United States and the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sasha Turner</span> Jamaican-American historian

Sasha Deborah Turner is a Jamaican-American historian who is an associate professor of history of at the Johns Hopkins University Department of the History of Medicine. Her research considers the history of the Caribbean, with a particular focus on enslavement and colonialism. She is co-president of the Coordinating Council for Women in History.

<i>Slavery Memorial</i> (Brown University) Monument in Brown University

The Slavery Memorial is a sculptural memorial on the campus of Brown University that recognizes the institution's 18th century connections to chattel slavery and the transatlantic slave trade. Designed by sculptor Martin Puryear and dedicated in 2014, the memorial stands on the university's Front Green, adjacent to University Hall.

References

  1. 1 2 Jennifer Schuessler (March 5, 2017). "Confronting Academia's Ties to Slavery". New York Times. Archived from the original on December 15, 2018.
  2. 1 2 Fuentes, Marisa J.; Gray White, Deborah, eds. (2016). Scarlet and Black: Slavery and Dispossession in Rutgers History. Rutgers University Press. ISBN   9780813591520.
  3. ↑ Massachusetts Institute of Technology. "MIT and Slavery". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on 2018-10-05.
  4. ↑ Holly Epstein Ojalvo (February 13, 2017). "Beyond Yale: These other university buildings have ties to slavery and white supremacy". USA Today. Archived from the original on March 27, 2019.
  5. ↑ Swarns, Rachel L. The 272: The Families Who Were Enslaved and Sold To Build the American Catholic Church. New York: Random House
  6. 1 2 Wilder, Craig (2013). Ebony and Ivy: Race, Slavery, and the Troubled History of America's History. Bloomsbury Press. p. 113.
  7. ↑ Hrabowski III, Freeman; Henderson, Peter; Tracy, J. Kathleen (24 October 2020). "Higher Education Should Lead the Efforts to Reverse Structural Racism". www.theatlantic.com. Archived from the original on 9 June 2021. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
  8. ↑ Lucey, Catherine Reini; Saguil, Aaron (March 2020). "The Consequences of Structural Racism on MCAT Scores and Medical School Admissions: The Past Is Prologue". Academic Medicine. 95 (3): 351–356. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000002939 . PMID   31425184. S2CID   201100182 . Retrieved 9 June 2021.
  9. 1 2 3 Berlin, Ira (2004). "American Slavery in History and Memory and the Search for Social Justice". The Journal of American History. 90 (4). Oxford University Press: 1251–1268. doi:10.2307/3660347. JSTOR   3660347.
  10. ↑ Krantz, Laura (February 12, 2018). "Looking into its past, MIT finds its first president once owned slaves - The Boston Globe". The Boston Globe . Retrieved 2022-01-26.
  11. ↑ "Universities Studying Slavery (USS)–The Birth of a Movement". President's Commission on Slavery and the University. 2017-02-03. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
  12. ↑ "From slavery to Jim Crow to George Floyd: Virginia universities face a long racial reckoning". Washington Post. ISSN   0190-8286 . Retrieved 2022-01-26.
  13. ↑ Medina, Eduardo (2021-11-23). "Georgia's University System Will Not Rename Buildings With Ties to Slavery". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2022-01-26.
  14. 1 2 Melish, Joane (2006). "6 Recovering (from) Slavery: Four Struggles to Tell the Truth". In Horton, Lois E.; Horton, James Oliver (eds.). Slavery and Public History: The Tough Stuff of American Memory. New York: The New Press. pp. 103–134. ISBN   978-1-59558-744-2. OCLC   608624600.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 "Slavery and Justice" (PDF). www.brown.edu. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 30, 2016. Retrieved 2019-06-29.
  16. ↑ Emlen, Robert (Summer 2008). "Slave Labor at the College Edifice: Building Brown University's University Hall in 1770" (PDF). Rhode Island History. 66 (2). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-01-09. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  17. ↑ Wootton, Anne (2006-04-19). "University Hall construction records show U.'s nuanced ties to slavery". Brown Daily Herald. Archived from the original on 2021-04-11. Retrieved 2021-03-30.
  18. ↑ Belluck, Pam (2006-10-19). "Panel Suggests Brown U. Atone for Ties to Slavery". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2020-11-09. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
  19. 1 2 Lehrer-Small, Asher (2019-10-16). "Lehrer-Small '20: Revisiting the Slavery and Justice Report". Brown Daily Herald. Archived from the original on 2020-06-02. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
  20. ↑ Gimenes, Livia (2020-07-29). "Brown to fully fund $10 million endowment for Providence Public Schools". Brown Daily Herald. Archived from the original on 2020-09-27. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
  21. ↑ "The US is grappling with its history of slavery. The blueprint for dealing with it? Some say Brown University". www.usatoday.com. 17 December 2019. Archived from the original on 2021-04-11. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  22. ↑ Cellini, Richard (20 January 2019). "How Universities Can Respond to Their Slavery Ties". www.chronicle.com. Archived from the original on 2020-11-07. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
  23. 1 2 Bu, Zack (2014-09-29). "New slavery memorial aims to spark reflection". Brown Daily Herald. Archived from the original on 2021-04-11. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  24. ↑ Castronuovo, Celine (2021-04-01). "80 percent of Brown University students vote for reparations to descendants of enslaved people". TheHill. Archived from the original on 2021-04-17. Retrieved 2021-04-17.
  25. ↑ Amaral, Brian (March 29, 2021). "Brown University students vote to support reparations for descendants of enslaved people connected to the school - The Boston Globe". BostonGlobe.com. Archived from the original on 2021-04-17. Retrieved 2021-04-17.
  26. ↑ Amaral, Brian (April 8, 2021). "Will Brown University consider reparations after students voted to do so? Answer: It's complicated - The Boston Globe". The Boston Globe . Retrieved 2022-01-26.
  27. ↑ "Columbia University and Slavery". Archived from the original on 2019-06-18. Retrieved 2019-07-07.
  28. ↑ Hersher, Rebecca (24 January 2017). "Columbia University Reveals Details Of Its Ties With Slavery". NPR.org. Archived from the original on 2019-07-07. Retrieved 2019-07-07.
  29. ↑ Svrluga, Susan (January 24, 2017). "Columbia University explores historical ties to the slave trade". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
  30. ↑ Schuessler, Jennifer (2017-01-23). "Columbia Unearths Its Ties to Slavery". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2019-03-21. Retrieved 2019-07-07.
  31. ↑ "Columbia University and Slavery". columbiaandslavery.columbia.edu. Archived from the original on 2019-06-18. Retrieved 2019-07-07.
  32. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Eyob, Hannah. "A History of Barnard College; Frederick A.P Barnard and the afterlives of slavery". Columbia University and Slavery. Archived from the original on 2021-03-25. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  33. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Song, Tommy (May 2018). "F.A.P. Barnard: 10th President of Columbia University". Columbia University & Slavery. Archived from the original on 2021-04-17. Retrieved 2021-04-17.
  34. ↑ Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter (1863). A Letter to the President by A Refugee.
  35. ↑ "A Complicated History: Slavery at Dartmouth". The Dartmouth. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
  36. ↑ "Dear Old Dartmouth Built on the Back of Slaves". journeys.dartmouth.edu. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
  37. ↑ "A History of Opposition". The Dartmouth Review. 2016-10-10. Archived from the original on 2021-06-26. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  38. ↑ "Beyond the 272 Sold in 1838, Plotting the National Diaspora of Jesuit-Owned Slaves". Archived from the original on May 1, 2017. Retrieved February 2, 2018.
  39. ↑ Quallen, Matthew. "Beyond the 272 Sold in 1838, Plotting the National Diaspora of Jesuit-Owned Slaves". The Hoya. Archived from the original on May 1, 2017. Retrieved April 28, 2017.
  40. ↑ King, Noel (April 26, 2017). "Georgetown, Louisiana, Part Two". Planet Money. Archived from the original on April 28, 2017. Retrieved April 28, 2017.
  41. ↑ "What We Know Booklet". Georgetown Slavery Archive. 2015. Archived from the original on February 3, 2018. Retrieved February 3, 2018.
  42. ↑ Georgetown University Archives (1821). ""Carried there in abundance:" Georgetown's Procurator objects to the food rations for black workers in the wash house, 1821". Box 40, Folder 10, Item 8abcd, Maryland Province Archives, Booth Family Center for Special Collections, Georgetown University. Georgetown Slavery Archive. Archived from the original on 2020-07-26.
  43. ↑ Swarns, Rachel L. (April 17, 2016). "272 Slaves Were Sold to Save Georgetown. What Does It Owe Their Descendants?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 6, 2017. Retrieved April 28, 2017.
  44. ↑ Shireen Korkzan (April 18, 2017). "Georgetown liturgy of contrition honors enslaved". National Catholic Reporter. Archived from the original on September 10, 2018. Retrieved December 12, 2018.
  45. ↑ Shaver, Katherine (November 15, 2015). "Georgetown University to rename two buildings that reflect school's ties to slavery". Washington Post. ISSN   0190-8286. Archived from the original on February 3, 2018. Retrieved February 2, 2018.
  46. ↑ Cloherty, Megan (April 18, 2017). "Georgetown University confronts past of slavery, rededicates 2 buildings". WTOP. Archived from the original on July 5, 2017. Retrieved February 2, 2018.
  47. ↑ "A Student Stand Against Slavery". Hamilton College. Archived from the original on 2021-05-26. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  48. ↑ James O. Horton, “Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race in a Revolutionary Generation,” New-York Journal of American History, 3 (2004), 16-24
  49. ↑ Kindy, David. "New Research Suggests Alexander Hamilton Was a Slave Owner". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on 2021-06-08. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  50. ↑ Serfilippi, Jessie (2020). ""AS ODIOUS AND IMMORAL A THING" Alexander Hamilton's Hidden History as an Enslaver" (PDF). Schuyler Mansion State Historic Site. New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 May 2021. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
  51. 1 2 3 4 Beckert, Sven; Stevens, Katherine; et al. (2011). "Harvard and Slavery: Seeking a Forgotten History" (PDF). Harvard University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-07-28.
  52. ↑ "About | Harvard & Slavery". Archived from the original on 2021-04-30. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  53. ↑ Walters, Lindsey (2017). "Slavery and the American university: discourses of retrospective justice at Harvard and Brown". Slavery & Abolition. 38 (4): 719–744. doi:10.1080/0144039X.2017.1309875. S2CID   152221691. Archived from the original on 2020-02-26. Retrieved 2019-08-15.
  54. 1 2 Chaidez, Alexandra; Ryan, Aidan. "Bacow Announces Initiative to Study Harvard's Ties to Slavery". No. 22 November 2019. The Harvard Crimson.
  55. ↑ Anderson, Nick; Svrluga, Susan (26 April 2022). "Harvard leaders and staff enslaved 79 people, university finds". The Washington Post.
  56. ↑ "Recommendations to the President and Fellows of Harvard College". Report on Harvard and the Legacy of Slavery. Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study.
  57. ↑ Furst, Camille (26 April 2022). "Harvard Pledges $100 Million to Redress Ties to Slavery". The Wall Street Journal.
  58. ↑ "Harvard Law School Is Officially Dropping Its Controversial Seal". Mic. 15 March 2016. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
  59. ↑ Parker, Clair E. (4 March 2016). "Law School Committee Recommends Seal Change". Harvard Crimson. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
  60. 1 2 Aidan F. Ryan (April 24, 2018). "Two Years After Law School Removed Royall Crest, No New Seal in Sight". The Harvard Crimson. Archived from the original on March 13, 2020.
  61. ↑ Kurilla, Michelle G. (27 November 2019). "Harvard Law School Announces Working Group to Develop New Sea". The Harvard Crimson. Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
  62. ↑ "Harvard Law School Reveals New Seal, Replacing Former Crest With Ties to Slavery | News | The Harvard Crimson". www.thecrimson.com. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
  63. ↑ "Understanding the legacy of slavery". Harvard Law School. Harvard Law Today. 26 April 2022.
  64. ↑ Aidan F. Ryan (September 6, 2017). "At Law School, honor for the enslaved". The Harvard Gazette. Archived from the original on December 1, 2018.
  65. ↑ Schwartz, Matthew S. (21 March 2019). "Harvard Profits From Photos Of Slaves, Lawsuit Claims". NPR.org. Archived from the original on 2019-07-05. Retrieved 2019-07-05.
  66. ↑ Ganesh Setty (6 March 2021). "A judge ruled photos of enslaved individuals belong to Harvard, not their direct descendant". CNN. Archived from the original on 2021-04-15. Retrieved 2021-04-18.
  67. ↑ "'Morally, Harvard Has No Grounds': Inside the Explosive Lawsuit That Accuses the University of Profiting From Images of Slavery". Artnet News. 2019-03-28. Archived from the original on 2021-04-18. Retrieved 2021-04-18.
  68. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Jaclyn Diaz Johns Hopkins, Long Believed An Abolitionist, Actually Owned Slaves, University Says Archived 2020-12-16 at the Wayback Machine NPR, December 10, 2020.
  69. 1 2 3 4 "Reexamining the Life of Johns Hopkins". www.hopkinsmedicine.org. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  70. 1 2 Daniels, Ronald J.; Rothman, Paul B.; Sowers, Kevin W. (9 December 2020). "Reexamining the history of our founder – Office of the President". Johns Hopkins University - Office of the President. Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 2021-04-17.
  71. 1 2 "New research reveals how U.S. newspapers brokered slavery". The Journalist's Resource. 2020-08-10. Archived from the original on 2021-04-17. Retrieved 2021-04-17.
  72. ↑ Nash, Gary B. (December 2006). "Franklin and Slavery". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 150 (4): 618–638. JSTOR   4599029. accessed 13 June 2024
  73. ↑ Israel, Jonathan I. The Expanding Blaze: How the American Revolution Ignited the World, 1775-1848. Princeton: Princeton University Press 2017,144
  74. ↑ Wood, Gordon. The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin. New York 2004, 227
  75. ↑ Gutmann, Amy (28 June 2018). "Statement on Penn's connections to slavery". Penn Today. Archived from the original on 2020-12-02. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  76. ↑ "Penn & Slavery Project". Penn & Slavery Project. Archived from the original on 2021-06-18. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  77. ↑ "Early Trustees · Slave Ownership ·". Penn & Slavery Project. Archived from the original on 2021-04-17. Retrieved 2021-04-17.
  78. 1 2 3 4 Kersh, Dillon. "Caesar's Bell · Slave Ownership ·". pennandslaveryproject.org. Archived from the original on 2021-04-19. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  79. 1 2 Kersh, Dillon. "Ebenezer Kinnersley · Slave Ownership ·". pennandslaveryproject.org. Archived from the original on 2021-04-19. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  80. ↑ Glass, Michael R. "Princeton's Founding Trustees". Princeton & Slavery. Princeton University. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
  81. 1 2 3 Morales, R. Isabela. "Princeton's Slaveholding Presidents". slavery.princeton.edu. Archived from the original on 2021-05-26. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  82. 1 2 Morales, Isabela. "Slavery at the President's House". slavery.princeton.edu. Princeton University. Archived from the original on 9 June 2021. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
  83. 1 2 "Princeton and Slavery: Holding the Center". slavery.princeton.edu. Archived from the original on 2021-05-26. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  84. ↑ Klein, Kimberly. "Princeton and the New Jersey Colonization Society". slavery.princeton.edu. Archived from the original on 2021-05-26. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  85. ↑ Armstrong, April. "Erased Pasts and Altered Legacies: Princeton's First African American Students". slavery.princeton.edu. Princeton University. Archived from the original on 9 June 2021. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
  86. 1 2 "Rutgers · Campus Namesakes · Rutgers Scarlet and Black Project". scarletandblack.rutgers.edu. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  87. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Slavery Timeline". Rutgers Scarlet and Black Project. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  88. ↑ "Hardenbergh · Campus Namesakes · Rutgers Scarlet and Black Project". scarletandblack.rutgers.edu. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  89. ↑ "Sojourner Truth · Campus Namesakes · Rutgers Scarlet and Black Project". scarletandblack.rutgers.edu. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  90. ↑ "An Uncomfortable Truth". Rutgers Magazine. Archived from the original on 2019-04-03. Retrieved 2021-04-18.
  91. ↑ Edwards, Richard L. (10 November 2015). "Committee on Enslaved and Disenfranchised Populations in Rutgers History". Rutgers New Brunswick. Archived from the original on 2021-01-20. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  92. 1 2 "About Scarlet and Black". scarletandblack.rutgers.edu. Retrieved 2022-04-20.
  93. ↑ "Recommendations - Scarlet and Black Project". scarletandblack.rutgers.edu. Retrieved 2022-04-20.
  94. 1 2 Onuf, Peter; Virginia, history professor at the University of. "Life At Jefferson's Monticello, As His Slaves Saw It". NPR.org. Archived from the original on 2021-04-18. Retrieved 2021-04-18.
  95. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Slavery and the University Report" (PDF). University of Virginia. 2018.
  96. 1 2 Fazzare, Elizabeth (9 September 2020). "UVA's New Memorial to Enslaved Laborers Confronts the School's History". Architectural Digest. Archived from the original on 2021-04-18. Retrieved 2021-04-18.
  97. ↑ Svrluga, Susan. "U-Va. acknowledges its slave history". Washington Post. ISSN   0190-8286. Archived from the original on 2020-03-13. Retrieved 2021-04-18.
  98. ↑ Jefferson's Blood Archived 2019-12-03 at the Wayback Machine , PBS Frontline, 2000. Section: "Is It True?" Quote: "[T]he new scientific evidence has been correlated with the existing documentary record, and a consensus of historians and other experts who have examined the issue agree that the question has largely been answered: Thomas Jefferson fathered at least one of Sally Hemings' children, and quite probably all six.", accessed 26 September 2014
  99. ↑ "Slavery at Jefferson's Monticello: Paradox of Liberty". Smithsonian. Archived from the original on 10 March 2018. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
  100. ↑ "Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings A Brief Account". Archived from the original on March 26, 2019. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
  101. ↑ Grady, Constance (2016-04-08). "Thomas Jefferson spent years raping Sally Hemings. A new novel calls it a love story". Vox. Archived from the original on 2021-04-18. Retrieved 2021-04-18.
  102. ↑ Svrluga, Susan. "University of Virginia plans a large memorial commemorating thousands of enslaved people who worked there". Washington Post. ISSN   0190-8286. Archived from the original on 2020-08-16. Retrieved 2021-04-18.
  103. ↑ "Memorial to Enslaved Laborers". President's Commission on Slavery and the University. 2017-01-13. Archived from the original on 2020-07-21. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  104. ↑ The Lemon Project Archived 2021-03-30 at the Wayback Machine William & Mary.
  105. ↑ Baker, Marian (26 October 2016). "Slavery, Memory and Reconciliation: What is the Furman Legacy?". The Paladin. Archived from the original on 24 October 2022. Retrieved 2022-10-23.
  106. ↑ "Universities Studying Slavery (USS) Welcomes Furman University!". President's Commission on Slavery and the University. 2017-05-30. Archived from the original on 15 November 2017. Retrieved 2022-10-23.
  107. 1 2 3 4 Furman University's Task Force on Slavery and Justice (2019). Seeking Abraham (PDF) (Report) (Second ed.). Greenville, South Carolina. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 24 October 2022.
  108. ↑ "Task Force on Slavery and Justice". Furman University. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 2022-10-23.
  109. ↑ McDavid, Brennan (2019-05-23). "Furman University cuts ties to slavery; makes changes in response to recommendations". WYFF News 4. Archived from the original on 23 May 2019. Retrieved 2022-10-23.
  110. ↑ Pennamon, Tiffany (2019-05-22). "Furman Board Approves Name Change, Statue to Honor First African-American Student". Diverse: Issues In Higher Education. Archived from the original on 22 September 2021. Retrieved 2022-10-23.
  111. ↑ "Joseph Vaughn Day - The Plaza". Furman University. Archived from the original on 7 June 2021. Retrieved 2022-10-24.
  112. ↑ Aarts, Helena (30 August 2021). "A Different Message at Convocation: Reconciliation with History, Building Community". The Paladin. Archived from the original on 29 January 2022. Retrieved 2022-10-24.
  113. ↑ "About - Vision, Mission and Values". Furman University. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 2022-10-24.
  114. ↑ "Shackled Legacy". Archived from the original on 2020-07-05. Retrieved 2020-07-05.
  115. ↑ Branch, Mark Alden, The Slavery Legacy Archived 2020-08-31 at the Wayback Machine Yale Alumni Magazine. February, 2002.
  116. ↑ "Calhoun College to be renamed for Grace Hopper". 11 February 2017. Archived from the original on 2020-07-21. Retrieved 2020-07-19.
  117. ↑ Newman, Andy; Wang, Vivian (3 September 2017). "Calhoun Who? Yale Drops Name of Slavery Advocate for Computer Pioneer". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2020-06-19. Retrieved 2020-07-05.
  118. ↑ "Yale changes name of building honoring slave owner". 11 February 2017. Archived from the original on 2020-07-08. Retrieved 2020-07-05.
  119. ↑ Remnick, Noah (11 September 2015). "Yale Grapples With Ties to Slavery in Debate Over a College's Name". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2020-06-27. Retrieved 2020-07-05.
  120. ↑ Blight, David W. Yale and Slavery: A History. New Haven: Yale and Slavery History Project/Yale University Press 2024
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.