Sporosarcina ureae

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Sporosarcina ureae
Scientific classification
Domain:
Bacteria
Phylum:
Bacillota
Class:
Bacilli
Order:
Bacillales
Family:
Planococcaceae
Genus:
Sporosarcina
Species:
Sporosarcina ureae

(Beijerinck 1901) Kluyver and van Niel 1936

Sporosarcina ureae is a type of bacteria of the genus Sporosarcina , and is closely related to the genus Bacillus . S. ureae is an aerobic, motile, spore-forming, Gram-positive coccus, originally isolated in the early 20th century from soil. [1] S. ureae is distinguished by its ability to grow in relatively high concentrations of urea through production of at least one exourease, an enzyme that converts urea to ammonia. [2] S. ureae has also been found to sporulate when environmental conditions become unfavorable, and can remain viable for up to a year . [1]

Contents

History

In the early 20th century, famous Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck isolated a microorganism that he named Planosarcina ureae. [1] In an effort to isolate bacteria from urea-containing soil enrichments, he repeatedly came across a motile coccus that clustered in packets and had the ability to form endospores. The isolated organism's nomenclature changed often as the result of the morphological and biochemical observations done by early researchers. [1] In 1911, Lohnis proposed that the organism should be called Sarcina ureae because of the cluster packets the organism formed in culture. In the 1960s, researchers MacDonald and MacDonald along with Kocur and Martinec moved Sarcina ureae to the genus Sporosarcina (proposed by Orla-Jensen in 1909 and first used by Kluyver and van Neil in 1936). Later in 1973, Pregerson isolated over 50 different strains of S. ureae from numerous soil samples around the world, finding that the organism is most commonly present in soils that reflected high activities of dogs and humans. [3]

Characteristics

The cells are coccoid. Cells are 1–2.5 μm. Cell division is carried out in two or three successive planes, such that tetrads or packets of eight or more cells are formed. [4] S. ureae forms endospores (like all species of the genus). The endospores are 0.5–1.5 μm. [5] The species can move using a flagellum.

Metabolism

S. ureae is heterotrophic, as it does not perform photosynthesis. Its metabolism is due to cellular respiration. The species is strictly aerobic, as it needs oxygen. The optimal pH for growth is 7. The optimal temperature for growth is 25 °C. Growth under oxygen exclusion does not occur. The oxidase test is positive. [5]

Ecology

S. ureae is one of the bacteria that can make use of urea with the enzyme urease. It is often found in soil, and forms the highest population densities in soils exposed to large amounts of urine, for example, cow pastures. Through plating serial dilutions of soil, both Gibson and Pregerson found that a gram of soil could contain up to 10,000 S. ureae organisms. [1] S. ureae probably plays an important role in the degradation of urine. It is also found in manure [6] and tolerates a pH of 9–10. [5]

Isolation

Over the years, several methods have been developed to isolate and maintain cultures of S. ureae. In 1935, Gibson used standard nutrient agar supplemented with 3-5% urea to inhibit most other soil organisms that would otherwise outcompete S. ureae. Pregerson's (1973) isolation technique was similar, but she used tryptic soy yeast agar (27.5 g Difco tryptic soy broth, 5.0 g Difco yeast extract, 15.0 g Difco agar, 1 liter of water) supplemented with 1% urea and incubated serial dilutions of soil samples at a cooler 22 °C. Omitting the urea provides an effective maintenance medium. [3]

Etymology

The genus name derives from the Greek word spora ("spore") and the Latin word sarcina ("package", "bundle") and refers to the fact that it forms endospores and the typical arrangement of the cells. [5] The species name derives from the ability of this species to break down urea. [5]

Genetics and phylogeny

Currently, only a draft genome of S. ureae exists. Automated annotation server RAST (rast.nmpdr.org) reveals specific genes involved in stress response, cell wall and capsule, and household genes, among others. Claus et al. (1983) determined the GC content of S.ureae to be 40.6-40.8%. S. ureae is closely related to other spore-forming organisms of the genus Bacillus, an observation first noted by Beijerinck in 1903. Fox et al. (1977) showed that S. ureae is most closely related to B. pasteurii. [1]

Biotechnological applications

Recently interest in S. ureae has increased due to the potential biotechnological applications; however, research has nearly been exclusively focused on the unique outer cell surface layer (S-layer). S-layers are composed of single proteins that form a predictable lattice structure and have potential applications in nanoelectronics, medicine, and biosensors. An example of this research is the S-layer's promising role in enzyme immobilization. The process of artificially breaking down certain metabolites and poisons is often slowed by the proximity of the required enzymes needed to one another. However, if one were able to use the S. ureae S-layer, all the required enzymes needed to metabolize a specific poison could be bound together, thus dramatically increasing rate of the reactions. [7] Furthermore, much of the research is looking into the self-assembly property of S-layers which, when bound to certain antibodies, has the ability to advance the vaccine development. [8] Studies are also looking its role in certain pathogens, such as B. anthracis, where it is implicated in cellular attachment. [8]

Other important areas of this research can be seen in some of the current work being done at the Ames Research Center (NASA), looking at organisms that convert urea to ammonium. A presentation by Lynn Rothschild (Horizon Lectures, Sept. 2012) indicated some of the first colonizers of Mars might use these organisms to convert human waste to ammonium and subsequently use the ammonium to lower the pH of the Mars soils to make calcium carbonate cement. This cement could then be used to make bricks and other building materials.

The ability for S.ureae to convert urea to ammonia has important potential applications in the production of biofuels and fertilizers. Ammonia is currently being actively researched as a carbon-alternative fuel source. The high octane rating (110-130) and its relative safety when compared to gasoline make it an ideal replacement for current gasoline. Traditional methods of generating ammonia for fertilizer rely heavily on the use of natural gas; in fact, to produce the ammonia needed for current fertilizer demands accounts for an estimated 2% of the entire world's energy consumption. [9]

Related Research Articles

<i>Bacillus</i> Genus of bacteria

Bacillus is a genus of Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria, a member of the phylum Bacillota, with 266 named species. The term is also used to describe the shape (rod) of certain bacteria; and the plural Bacilli is the name of the class of bacteria to which this genus belongs. Bacillus species can be either obligate aerobes: oxygen dependent; or facultative anaerobes: having the ability to continue living in the absence of oxygen. Cultured Bacillus species test positive for the enzyme catalase if oxygen has been used or is present.

Endospore Protective structure formed by bacteria

An endospore is a dormant, tough, and non-reproductive structure produced by some bacteria in the phylum Bacillota. The name "endospore" is suggestive of a spore or seed-like form, but it is not a true spore. It is a stripped-down, dormant form to which the bacterium can reduce itself. Endospore formation is usually triggered by a lack of nutrients, and usually occurs in gram-positive bacteria. In endospore formation, the bacterium divides within its cell wall, and one side then engulfs the other. Endospores enable bacteria to lie dormant for extended periods, even centuries. There are many reports of spores remaining viable over 10,000 years, and revival of spores millions of years old has been claimed. There is one report of viable spores of Bacillus marismortui in salt crystals approximately 250 million years old. When the environment becomes more favorable, the endospore can reactivate itself into a vegetative state. Most types of bacteria cannot change to the endospore form. Examples of bacterial species that can form endospores include Bacillus cereus, Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus thuringiensis, Clostridium botulinum, and Clostridium tetani.

Urease Multiprotein Nickel-containing complex which hydrolyses urea

Ureases, functionally, belong to the superfamily of amidohydrolases and phosphotriesterases. Ureases are found in numerous bacteria, fungi, algae, plants, and some invertebrates, as well as in soils, as a soil enzyme. They are nickel-containing metalloenzymes of high molecular weight.

Nitrification Biological oxidation of ammonia or ammonium to nitrite followed by the oxidation of the nitrite to nitrate

Nitrification is the biological oxidation of ammonia to nitrite followed by the oxidation of the nitrite to nitrate occurring through separate organisms or direct ammonia oxidation to nitrate in comammox bacteria. The transformation of ammonia to nitrite is usually the rate limiting step of nitrification. Nitrification is an important step in the nitrogen cycle in soil. Nitrification is an aerobic process performed by small groups of autotrophic bacteria and archaea.

<i>Bacillus subtilis</i> Catalase-positive bacterium

Bacillus subtilis, known also as the hay bacillus or grass bacillus, is a Gram-positive, catalase-positive bacterium, found in soil and the gastrointestinal tract of ruminants, humans and marine sponges. As a member of the genus Bacillus, B. subtilis is rod-shaped, and can form a tough, protective endospore, allowing it to tolerate extreme environmental conditions. B. subtilis has historically been classified as an obligate aerobe, though evidence exists that it is a facultative anaerobe. B. subtilis is considered the best studied Gram-positive bacterium and a model organism to study bacterial chromosome replication and cell differentiation. It is one of the bacterial champions in secreted enzyme production and used on an industrial scale by biotechnology companies.

<i>Nitrosomonas</i> Genus of bacteria

Nitrosomonas is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria, belonging to the Betaproteobacteria. It is one of the five genera of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria and, as an obligate chemolithoautotroph, uses ammonia as an energy source and as a carbon source in presence of oxygen. Nitrosomonas are important in the global biogeochemical nitrogen cycle, since they increase the bioavailability of nitrogen to plants and in the denitrification, which is important for the release of nitrous oxide, a powerful greenhouse gas. This microbe is photophobic, and usually generate a biofilm matrix, or form clumps with other microbes, to avoid light. Nitrosomonas can be divided into six lineages: the first one includes the species Nitrosomonas europea, Nitrosomonas eutropha, Nitrosomonas halophila, and Nitrosomonas mobilis. The second lineage presents the species Nitrosomonas communis, N. sp. I and N. sp. II, meanwhile the third lineage includes only Nitrosomonas nitrosa. The fourth lineage includes the species Nitrosomonas ureae and Nitrosomonas oligotropha and the fifth and sixth lineages include the species Nitrosomonas marina, N. sp. III, Nitrosomonas estuarii and Nitrosomonas cryotolerans.

Rapid urease test

Rapid urease test, also known as the CLO test, is a rapid diagnostic test for diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori. The basis of the test is the ability of H. pylori to secrete the urease enzyme, which catalyzes the conversion of urea to ammonia and carbon dioxide.

The bacterium, despite its simplicity, contains a well-developed cell structure which is responsible for some of its unique biological structures and pathogenicity. Many structural features are unique to bacteria and are not found among archaea or eukaryotes. Because of the simplicity of bacteria relative to larger organisms and the ease with which they can be manipulated experimentally, the cell structure of bacteria has been well studied, revealing many biochemical principles that have been subsequently applied to other organisms.

<i>Bacillus megaterium</i> Species of bacterium

Bacillus megaterium is a rod-like, Gram-positive, mainly aerobic spore forming bacterium found in widely diverse habitats. With a cell length of up to 4 µm and a diameter of 1.5 µm, B. megaterium is amongst the biggest known bacteria. The cells often occur in pairs and chains, where the cells are joined together by polysaccharides on the cell walls.

Controlled-release fertiliser

A controlled-release fertiliser (CRF) is a granulated fertiliser that releases nutrients gradually into the soil. Controlled-release fertilizer is also known as controlled-availability fertilizer, delayed-release fertilizer, metered-release fertilizer, or slow-acting fertilizer. Usually CRF refers to nitrogen-based fertilizers. Slow- and controlled-release involve only 0.15% of the fertilizer market (1995).

<i>Bacillus anthracis</i> Species of bacterium

Bacillus anthracis is a Gram-positive and rod-shaped bacterium that causes anthrax, a deadly disease to livestock and, occasionally, to humans. It is the only permanent (obligate) pathogen within the genus Bacillus. Its infection is a type of zoonosis, as it is transmitted from animals to humans. It was discovered by a German physician Robert Koch in 1876, and became the first bacterium to be experimentally shown as a pathogen. The discovery was also the first scientific evidence for the germ theory of diseases.

Urea (46-0-0) accounts for more than fifty percent of the world's nitrogenous fertilizers. It is found in granular or prill form, which allows urea to be easily stored, transported and applied in agricultural settings. It is also the cheapest form of granular nitrogen fertilizer. Since urea is not an oxidizer at standard temperature and pressure, it is safer to handle and less of a security risk than other common nitrogen fertilizers, such as ammonium nitrate. However, if urea is applied to the soil surface, a meaningful fraction of applied fertilizer nitrogen may be lost to the atmosphere as ammonia gas; this only occurs under certain conditions.

Sporosarcina pasteurii formerly known as Bacillus pasteurii from older taxonomies, is a gram positive bacterium with the ability to precipitate calcite and solidify sand given a calcium source and urea; through the process of microbiologically induced calcite precipitation (MICP) or biological cementation. S. pasteurii has been proposed to be used as an ecologically sound biological construction material. Researchers studied the bacteria in conjunction with plastic and hard mineral; forming a material stronger than bone. It is a commonly used for MICP since it is non-pathogenic and is able to produce high amounts of the enzyme urease which hydrolyzes urea to carbonate and ammonia.

Yeast assimilable nitrogen Form of nitrogen available to wine yeast to use during fermentation

Yeast assimilable nitrogen or YAN is the combination of free amino nitrogen (FAN), ammonia (NH3) and ammonium (NH4+) that is available for a yeast, e.g. the wine yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, to use during fermentation. Outside of the fermentable sugars glucose and fructose, nitrogen is the most important nutrient needed to carry out a successful fermentation that doesn't end prior to the intended point of dryness or sees the development of off-odors and related wine faults. To this extent winemakers will often supplement the available YAN resources with nitrogen additives such as diammonium phosphate (DAP).

Lysinibacillus fusiformis is a gram-positive, rod-shaped bacterium of the genus Lysinibacillus. Scientists have yet to completely characterize this microbe's pathogenic nature. Though little is known about this organism, several genome sequencing projects for various strains of L. fusiformis are currently underway.

Symbiobacterium thermophilum is a symbiotic thermophile that depends on co-culture with a Bacillus strain for growth. It is Gram-negative and tryptophanase-positive, with type strain T(T). It is the type species of its genus. Symbiobacterium is related to the Gram-positive Bacillota and Actinomycetota, but belongs to a lineage that is distinct from both.S. thermophilum has a bacillus shaped cell structure with no flagella. This bacterium is located throughout the environment in soils and fertilizers.

Sporosarcina is a genus of bacteria.

Sporosarcina aquimarina is a rod-shaped bacterium of the genus Sporosarcina.

Paenibacillus macerans is a diazotroph bacterium found in soil and plants capable of nitrogen fixation and fermentation. This bacteria was originally discovered in 1905 by an Austrian biologist named Schardinger and thought to be a bacillus.

Bacillus fastidiosus is an aerobic, motile, rod-shaped bacterium that has been isolated from soil and poultry litter. The species was first isolated and described by the scientist Den Dooren de Jong in 1929. This organism is a mesophile that contains ellipsoidal spores that do not cause swelling of the sporangia. Bacillus fastidiosus is only able to grow in the presence of uric acid, allantoin, or allantoic acid.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Dworkin, Martin; Falkow, Stanley (2006). The Prokaryotes: Vol. 4: Bacteria: Firmicutes, Cyanobacteria. Springer. pp.  636–641.
  2. ↑ McCoy, D.D.; Cetin, A.; Hausinger, R.P. (1992). "Characterization of urease from Sporosarcina ureae". Archives of Microbiology. 157 (5): 411–416. doi:10.1007/bf00249097. PMID   1510567. S2CID   1097138.
  3. 1 2 Pregerson, B.S. (1973). "The distribution and physiology Sporosarcina ureae". Master Dissertation, California State University, Northridge. hdl: 10211.2/4517 .
  4. ↑ Madigan MT; Martinko JM (2006), Brock Mikrobiologie (in German), ISBN   3-8273-7187-2
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Paul Vos; George Garrity; Dorothy Jones; Noel R. Krieg; Wolfgang Ludwig; Fred A. Rainey; Karl-Heinz Schleifer; William B. Whitman (2009), Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology: Volume 3: The Firmicutes (in German), Springer, ISBN   978-0387950419
  6. ↑ Georg Fuchs (Hrsg.); Thomas Eitinger; Erwin Schneider; Begründet von Hans. G. Schlegel (2007), Allgemeine Mikrobiologie (in German), Thieme, ISBN   978-3-13-444608-1
  7. ↑ Knobloch, D.; Ostermann, K.; Rödel, G. (2012). "Production, secretion, and cell surface display of recombinant Sporosarcina ureae S-layer fusion proteins in Bacillus megaterium". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 78 (2): 560–567. doi:10.1128/aem.06127-11. PMC   3255725 . PMID   22101038.
  8. 1 2 Ilk, N.; Egelseer, E.M.; Sleytr, U.B. (2011). "S-layer fusion proteins—construction principles and applications". Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 22 (6): 824–831. doi:10.1016/j.copbio.2011.05.510. PMC   3271365 . PMID   21696943.
  9. ↑ Zamfirescu, C.; Dincer, I. (2009). "Ammonia as a green fuel and hydrogen source for vehicular applications". Fuel Processing Technology. 90 (5): 729–737. doi:10.1016/j.fuproc.2009.02.004.
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