Stone vessels in ancient Judaea

Last updated
Stone vessels on display in the Burnt House in Jerusalem Jerusalem-Burnt-House-443.jpg
Stone vessels on display in the Burnt House in Jerusalem

The use of stone vessels made from soft limestone/chalkstone among Jews during the Second Temple period and beyond was widespread across Judea, Galilee and the Golan Heights. Initially appearing in the early 1st century BCE, these vessels continued to be utilized in each region for differing lengths of time.

Contents

In Judea, their use was traditionally thought to have ceased after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, but discoveries in places like Jericho and Shuafat indicate their continued use until the Bar Kokhba revolt. Conversely, in the Galilee, their use persisted until the 4th century CE. These stone vessels were found in all regions densely populated by Jews, often in settlements featuring ritual baths, serving as a significant indicator of Jewish presence from the early Roman period through the Byzantine era.

Stone vessels held particular religious significance in Jewish ritual law due to their imperviousness to impurity, contrasting with pottery vessels that could become impure and would need to be discarded or broken. This property likely contributed to their popularity during a period when adherence to purity laws was paramount in Jewish culture.

The remains of at least five workshops dedicated to producing stone vessels from the Second Temple Period have been identified as of 2021. These workshops were located near Jerusalem (Mount Scopus and Hizma), in the Galilee (Einot Amitai and Reineh), and in the Golan Heights (Wadi es-Sufera). Evidence suggests the presence of more workshops within Jerusalem itself, including Jabal Mukaber, Tel el-Ful, and Bethlehem of Galilee. These workshops operated within caves where craftsmen quarried chalk (soft limestone) and crafted stone vessels using manual techniques or lathes.

Role and importance

Stone vessels made of soft limestone, were used by Jews throughout Judaea during the Second Temple period and beyond. They first appeared during the early 1st century BCE and were gradually phased out during the following centuries. Their use in Judea was originally thought to have ceased after the destruction of the Second Temple, though through their discovery in such Jewish sites as those in Jericho and Shuafat, it became clear that their use continued until the Bar Kokhba revolt. By contrast, in the Galilee they continued to be used until the 4th century CE at least. [1]  Stone vessels were found in all the regions that were densely populated by Jews according to historical sources, and in all settlements which also contained ritual baths. [2] [3] As a result, Stone vessels, along with the presence of Mikvehs and a lack of imported vessels, serve as a clear indicator for Jewish sites in Judaea from the early Roman period through the Byzantine period. [4]

Historical context

It is widely accepted that during the Second Temple period, and especially after the founding of the Hasmonean state in Judaea, there began a dramatic increase in the awareness and practice of the laws of purity among Jews. [5] A testimony to this is the sudden appearance and spread of such elements of material culture as Mikvehs and stone vessels. This is most probably due to the centrality of the Temple around which the laws of purity revolved, though some have suggested that there was a political aspect to this as well. [6]

In Judea, the use of stone vessels continued even after the destruction of the temple, and finally ceased altogether with the crushing of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 136 CE, though in the galilee there is evidence for their continuous use through the 4th-century CE. [1]

Religious context

According to early interpretations of biblical law, the susceptibility of vessels to impurity is, among other things, based on the material that composed them. The biblical book of Leviticus lists the substances which become impure when they come in contact with a dead animal:

When one of them dies and falls on something, that article, whatever its use, will be unclean, whether it is made of wood, cloth, hide or sackcloth. Put it in water; it will be unclean till evening, and then it will be clean. [7]

The book of Numbers further lists other materials, including metals, which become impure when they come in contact with human remains:

Purify every garment as well as everything made of leather, goat hair or wood. Then Eleazar the priest said to the soldiers who had gone into battle, “This is what is required by the law that the Lord gave Moses: Gold, silver, bronze, iron, tin, lead, and anything else that can withstand fire must be put through the fire, and then it will be clean. But it must also be purified with the water of cleansing. And whatever cannot withstand fire must be put through that water. [8]

It is based on these lists that it was deduced during the Second Temple period that vessels made of these materials, namely wood, cloth, leather, sackcloth, pottery, bone and metal, are all susceptible to impurity, while vessels made of material not mentioned by the bible in this context, such as stone, could not become impure. [9] In addition to the above, according to biblical law, clay vessels that come in contact with animal remains become impure and cannot return to their former purity, therefore they must be broken:

If one of them falls into a clay pot, everything in it will be unclean, and you must break the pot. Any food you are allowed to eat that has come into contact with water from any such pot is unclean, and any liquid that is drunk from such a pot is unclean. Anything that one of their carcasses falls on becomes unclean; an oven or cooking pot must be broken up. They are unclean, and you are to regard them as unclean. [10]

As opposed to pottery vessels which had to be broken or discarded when becoming impure, stone vessels remained pure and could be used further. It is most probably due to this property, and their durability, that their use became increasingly popular during the Second Temple Period.

Although some scholars have suggested other reasons for the popularity of stone vessels during this period, such as fashionability or the increase of stone used in Jerusalem, the sources of the period provide support for purity being the main reason for their popularity. [11] Early Tannaitic sources discuss stone vessels extensively as insusceptible of impurity and the book of John mentions stone water jugs "for the Jewish rites of purification. [12] [11] In addition to this, given the durability of stoneware its use became popular and widespread during the 1st century BCE when the observation of the laws of purity were of utmost importance to the Jewish population.

Materials and methods of production

The vast majority of stone vessels of the Second Temple period were made of chalk, which was the easiest to carve, though hard and medium hard limestone, basalt, dolomite, marble and bituminous limestone were also used on occasion. The vessels made from the harder types of stone predated those made of chalk, required their own special methods of production, and were probably carved by stone masons. [13]

The main assemblage of stone vessels are classified by three main production techniques: vessels carved by hand, vessels turned on a small lathe and vessels turned on a large-scaled lathe. [14]

Vessels carved by hand

Hand carved vessels on display at the Herodian Quarter in Jerusalem Jerusalem-Herodian-Quarter-634.jpg
Hand carved vessels on display at the Herodian Quarter in Jerusalem

The category of vessels carved by hand includes vessels shaped and hollowed out manually with a hammer and chisel or blade, though those from the Galilee had a hand-cut exterior with an inside hollowed out by lathe. [15] By nature, vessels of this type, often display a faceted appearance, though some were further processed and had their rough exterior eliminated through polishing with an abrasive material. [14] The majority of vessels of this type, often nicknamed "Measuring cups" by scholars, have a rectangular vertical cross-section, a flat base, and one or two vertical rectangular handles with holes drilled into their center, with volumes ranging from about 20ml to about 1000ml. [14] [15] Despite their common identification with measuring cups, a study by Ronnie Reich has concluded that there is no correlation between their range of volumes and any known ancient measuring system, and so they appear to not have been used for measurements of any kind. [15] In light of this it is suggested that the larger vessels were used for serving water or wine, while the smaller ones were used for serving oil. Other Vessels included in this category are small pitchers, bowls, trays, lids, and stoppers. [14]

Small lathe-turned vessels

Vessels of this type were of small proportions, these included bowls of different forms and sizes, mugs from the Galilee, goblets on trumpet-shaped bases, [15] and lids. [14] Another type of lathe-turned vessel was the stopper which was manufactured exclusively for closing pottery vessels, seeing as a stone vessel of any significant capacity could not be made with a narrow opening. [16]  Some of these vessels were more elaborate and refined than those which had been hand carved, and included a distinct base, as opposed to the flat base of the hand carved type. [17] Many of these vessels imitate the form of similar lathe-turned wooden utensils such as have been found in Magdala, Qumran, Masada, Ein Gedi, and several Hiding complexes in the Judean hills and the Judean desert. [16] It is assumed that the vessels of this type were used predominantly for serving and dining. [16]

Two "Qalals" or "Kraters" in the Herodian Quarter of Jerusalem The Herodian Quarter P8050085.JPG
Two "Qalals" or "Kraters" in the Herodian Quarter of Jerusalem

Large lathe-turned vessels

These vessels were characteristically large and required a chalkstone block of considerable size. This block was externally shaped on a large lathe and could be hollowed out only by hand. [18] [15] The category under discussion mostly consists of "Qalals" ("kraters"), "cooking pots" as well as various bowls, trays and lids. [18] [15] The Qalals or kraters were large round chalice shaped basins for storing liquid, possibly water, which corroded the inside of these vessels to some degree. [19] Their height was usually 65–80 cm and they had a diameter of 40–50 cm. [16] They were often decorated with horizontal lines around the circumference, and many possessed two shelf-like handles. [20] A probable mention of these vessels may be seen in the book of John 2:6, which mentions the use of stone water-jars for the purity requirements of the Jews, of a volume matching that of the stone kraters found in Jerusalem. [15] Another vessel turned on the large lathe was the barrel-shaped "cooking pot", with a height and maximum diameter of 30 cm, it usually had two shelf-like handles located on the upper portion of the body. [15]

Distribution and places of manufacture

As of 2019, archaeological excavations have revealed Jewish stone vessel assemblages at over 250 sites across various regions, including Judea, the Galilee, the Golan Heights, Idumea, and Transjordan. These findings span all recognized geographical areas historically inhabited by Jewish communities. [21]

Distribution of stone vessels

The region of Judea boasts the highest concentration of archaeological sites where stone vessels have been unearthed. They have been found in every site with strata from the early Roman period, discoveries being documented across more than 140 sites. In the Galilee, recent findings have identified over 65 sites within the region containing these distinctive vessels, this is in contrast to initial assessments which had suggested a scarcity of such artifacts in the region. [21] In Idumea, approximately 25 sites have yielded stone vessel assemblages, spanning areas such as the southern Hebron Mountain, the southern Shephelah, and the northern Negev. The affiliations of these finds remain uncertain, as they could belong to either descendants of ethnic Jews who migrated from Judea between the Hasmonean conquest and the Bar Kokhba revolt, or Idumeans converted by the Hasmonean king John Hyrcanus. [21]

Excavations in the Golan Heights initially provided evidence of stone vessel use during the Second Temple period at Gamla, with subsequent investigations uncovering fragments at six additional sites in the northern Golan Heights. [21] A survey and excavation led by Sharya Fridman further identified twelve sites with stone vessel assemblages, including a workshop for their production. [22] Across the Transjordan region, fragments of stone vessels have been discovered within the confines of the Jewish-settled Peraea, while a significant assemblage was found in Tel Zar'ah, near Gadara, aligning with historical accounts of Jewish presence in these areas according to Josephus. [21] [23]

Despite being predominantly inhabited by pagans, the coastal region of Israel has yielded stone vessels in various locations such as Dor, Caesarea, Aphek (Antipatres), Jaffa, Nahalat Yehuda (Rishon LeZion), Kh. Diran (Rehovot), Yavneh Yam, and Ashdod. [24] These discoveries corroborate historical references by Josephus indicating Jewish communities in these areas. [25] [26] In Samaria, stone vessels have been found at sites like Kh. El-Hamam, identified by Adam Zertal as Jewish Narbata, and in Sebastia. The absence of stone vessels at Samaritan sites contrasts sharply with their presence in Sebastia, suggesting the Jewish heritage in the latter during the pagan era. [24]

Workshops and production sites

Stone vessel manufacturing site on Mount Scopus, Jerusalem Stone Vessels cave.jpg
Stone vessel manufacturing site on Mount Scopus, Jerusalem

As of 2021, archaeological surveys and excavations have identified at least five, and possibly up to nine, workshops from the Second Temple Period dedicated to the production of stone vessels. These workshops are situated at Mount Scopus [27] and Hizma near Jerusalem, [28] Einot Amitai [27] and Reineh [29] in the Galilee, and Wadi es-Sufera in the Golan Heights. [22] Additionally, evidence suggests the presence of three more workshops, within the city of Jerusalem itself, [30] in Jabal Mukaber, Tel el-Ful, and Bethlehem of Galilee. [31] These workshops were typically housed within caves where craftsmen quarried soft limestone (chalk), while leaving stone "pillars" to prevent their collapse, and fashioned stone vessels through manual techniques or the use of lathes. [32]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Modi'in Illit</span> Israeli settlement in the West Bank

Modi'in Illit is a Haredi Jewish-Israeli settlement organized as a city council in the West Bank, situated midway between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Askar Camp</span> Palestinian refugee camp in the Palestinian city of Nablus

Askar is a Palestinian refugee camp. It is located on the outskirts of the West Bank city of Nablus and was established in 1950 on 119 dunums of land. Residents of the camp refer to this as “New Askar”.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mampsis</span> Ancient city in Israel

Mampsis or Memphis, today Mamshit, Kurnub, is a former Nabataean caravan stop and Byzantine city. In the Nabataean period, Mampsis was an important station on the Incense Road, connecting Southern Arabia through Edom, the Arabah and Ma'ale Akrabim, to the Mediterranean ports, as well as to Jerusalem via Beersheba and Hebron. The city covers 10 acres (40,000 m2) and is the smallest but best restored ancient city in the Negev Desert. The once-luxurious houses feature unusual architecture not found in any other Nabataean city.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biddu, Jerusalem</span> Municipality type C in Jerusalem, State of Palestine

Biddu is a Palestinian town in the Jerusalem Governorate, located 6 kilometers northwest of Jerusalem in the West Bank. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, the town had a population of 8,231 in 2017. Biddu is at an altitude of 806m to 834m. Giv'on HaHadashah lies 2 km east of Biddu.

Yater is a Lebanese municipality located in Bint Jbeil District. It is 112 kilometers away from Beirut.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient synagogues in Palestine</span>

Ancient synagogues in Palestine refers to synagogues and their remains in the Land of Israel/Palestine region, built by the Jewish and Samaritan communities from the time of the Hasmonean dynasty during the Late Hellenistic period, to the Late Byzantine period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ze'ev Safrai</span> Israeli historian

Ze'ev Safrai is an Israeli Professor in the Department for Israel Studies in Bar Ilan University, as well as an author, lecturer and researcher of Israel in the Second Temple era. His main project is his authorship of the socio-historical commentary to the Mishnah called Mishnat Eretz Yisrael, which he began together with his late father Professor Shmuel Safrai and his late sister Professor Chana Safrai.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Samuel Klein (scholar)</span> 20th-century historical-geographer

Samuel Klein was a Hungarian-born rabbi, historian and historical geographer in Mandatory Palestine.

Khirbet el-'Ormeh or Horvat Ormah is an archaeological site located in the West Bank, around ten kilometers southeast of the Palestinian city of Nablus. The site contains the remains of a Hasmonean-Herodian fortress consisting of a fortification wall, rectangular towers constructed in the Hellenistic style, and a series of large cisterns for storing rainwater.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Archaeological Survey of Israel</span>

The Archeological Survey of Israel aims to survey the entire area of the State of Israel documenting and mapping all its archaeological sites. Executing the survey was entrusted to the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA), as they map, measure, photograph the sites while collecting important information about them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Khirbet Kurkush</span> Archeological site in the State of Palestine

Khirbet Kurkush is an archeological site in the West Bank. It lies between the Israeli settlements of Bruchin and Ariel and near the Palestinian town of Bruqin, in the Salfit Governorate of the State of Palestine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Metzad Mahmal</span> Human settlement in Israel

Metzad Mahmal is the ruins of a stronghold located on the edge of the northern cliff of the Ramon Crater, at the top end of Ma'ale Mahmal and is part of the Incense Route that runs between Petra and Avdat.

Uriel Rappaport was an Israeli historian. His area of research focus was the Second Temple period, including Hellenistic Judaism, the Maccabean Revolt, the Hasmonean kingdom, and the First Jewish–Roman War. He became a professor of Jewish History at the University of Haifa and served as a rector of the university from 1983 to 1985. He was a member of the Council for Higher Education in Israel in 1987–1989 and 1998–2001, and served as a chairman of the Humanities Committee at the Israel Science Foundation. Rappaport took emeritus status at Haifa in 2003, and served as president of Kinneret College in 2002–2006.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">The man in the wall</span> Archaeological site in Israel

The man in the wall is a unique relief of a Roman soldier curved in an Hellenistic style into a cliff wall near the Temple cave above Nahal Kziv, by the settlement of Abirim.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stone vessel</span> Marble Vessel. Northwest Honduras, Ulúa Valley, 700-1000 CE

A stone vessel is a hollow container, made of stone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">The first wall</span> 2nd century BCE wall

The First Wall is one of three strong and fortified walls that were built for the defense of Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period. This wall was built during the Hasmonean period, but its foundations are older and were laid already in the First Temple period. During the time of the Return to Zion, the wall was rebuilt by Nehemiah, and in the days of the Hasmoneans, it was strengthened and even additional parts of it were built. The additional walls are the Second Wall - built during the days of the Hasmonean rulers John Hyrcanus or Alexander Jannaeus, and the Third Wall - construction began in the days of Agrippa I, and its construction was completed on the eve of the Great Revolt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deir ed Darb</span> Monumental Jewish necropolis from the 1st century CE

Deir ed Darb is a monumental Jewish tomb with an elaborate façade dated to the 1st century CE. The site is located in the West Bank about 1/2-mile SE of the village center of Qarwat Bani Hassan. Its Arab name derives from the ancient road passing near it and refers to a monastery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ein Gedi synagogue</span> Archaeological site in Israel with an ancient synagogue

The Ein Gedi synagogue is located within the remains of the ancient Jewish settlement of Ein Gedi. The archaeological site is part of the Ein Gedi Nature Reserve in the Judean Desert.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scopus stone vessels cave</span> Archaeological site near Jerusalem

The Mount Scopus quarry and stone vessels production cave is a man-made underground quarrying and stone vessels manufacturing complex, dating to the late Second Temple period, more exactly the first century up to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. It is located on the northern slope of a promontory extending east from the Mount Scopus and Mount of Olives ridges, beside the road leading from Jerusalem to Ma'ale Adummim.

References

  1. 1 2 Sherman, Maya; Weiss, Zeev; Zilberman, Tami; Yasur, Gal (2020-05-01). "Chalkstone Vessels from Sepphoris: Galilean Production in Roman Times". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 383: 92. doi:10.1086/707583. ISSN   0003-097X.
  2. ↑ Sherman, Maya; Weiss, Zeev; Zilberman, Tami; Yasur, Gal (2020-05-01). "Chalkstone Vessels from Sepphoris: Galilean Production in Roman Times". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 383: 79–95. doi:10.1086/707583. ISSN   0003-097X.
  3. ↑ אדלר, יונתן; Adler, J. (2019). "חידושים במחקר כלי אבן־הקִרטון היהודיים בתקופה הרומית - New Insights in the Study of Roman Period Jewish Chalk Vessels". Qadmoniot: A Journal for the Antiquities of Eretz-Israel and Bible Lands / קדמוניות: כתב-עת לעתיקות ארץ-ישראל וארצות המקרא. נ"ב (157): 16. ISSN   0033-4839. JSTOR   26749426.
  4. ↑ Magen, Izchak; Haimovich-Carmin, Noga (2004). The Land of Benjamin. Staff Officer of Archaeology, Civil Administration of Judea and Samaria. p. 22. ISBN   978-965-406-159-9.
  5. ↑ Regev, Eyal (2021-10-20). "Purity, Pottery, and Judaean Ethnicity in the Hasmonean Period". Journal of Ancient Judaism. 12 (3): 391–432. doi:10.30965/21967954-bja10012. ISSN   2196-7954.
  6. ↑ Fatkin, Danielle Steen (2019). "Invention of a Bathing Tradition in Hasmonean Palestine". Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period. 50 (2): 155–177. doi:10.1163/15700631-12501247. ISSN   0047-2212. JSTOR   26675139.
  7. ↑ Leviticus 11:32
  8. ↑ Numbers 31:20–23
  9. ↑ אדלר, יונתן; Adler, J. (2019). "חידושים במחקר כלי אבן־הקִרטון היהודיים בתקופה הרומית - New Insights in the Study of Roman Period Jewish Chalk Vessels". Qadmoniot: A Journal for the Antiquities of Eretz-Israel and Bible Lands / קדמוניות: כתב-עת לעתיקות ארץ-ישראל וארצות המקרא. נ"ב (157): 14–15. ISSN   0033-4839. JSTOR   26749426.
  10. ↑ Leviticus 11:33–35
  11. 1 2 אדלר, יונתן; Adler, J. (2019). "חידושים במחקר כלי אבן־הקִרטון היהודיים בתקופה הרומית - New Insights in the Study of Roman Period Jewish Chalk Vessels". Qadmoniot: A Journal for the Antiquities of Eretz-Israel and Bible Lands / קדמוניות: כתב-עת לעתיקות ארץ-ישראל וארצות המקרא. נ"ב (157): 15–16. ISSN   0033-4839. JSTOR   26749426.
  12. ↑ John 6:2
  13. ↑ Reich, Ronny (2021-10-25), CHAPTER 41 LATE SECOND TEMPLE PERIOD STONE VESSELS, Penn State University Press, pp. 584–601, doi:10.1515/9781646021765-042, ISBN   978-1-64602-176-5 , retrieved 2024-07-07
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Gadot, Yuval; Adler, Yonatan (2016). "A Quantitative Analysis of Jewish Chalk Vessel Frequencies in Early Roman Jerusalem: A View from the City's Garbage Dump". Israel Exploration Journal. 66 (2): 205. ISSN   0021-2059. JSTOR   44474006.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 אדלר, יונתן; Adler, J. (2019). "חידושים במחקר כלי אבן־הקִרטון היהודיים בתקופה הרומית - New Insights in the Study of Roman Period Jewish Chalk Vessels". Qadmoniot: A Journal for the Antiquities of Eretz-Israel and Bible Lands / קדמוניות: כתב-עת לעתיקות ארץ-ישראל וארצות המקרא. נ"ב (157): 5. ISSN   0033-4839. JSTOR   26749426.
  16. 1 2 3 4 אדלר, יונתן; Adler, J. (2019). "חידושים במחקר כלי אבן־הקִרטון היהודיים בתקופה הרומית - New Insights in the Study of Roman Period Jewish Chalk Vessels". Qadmoniot: A Journal for the Antiquities of Eretz-Israel and Bible Lands / קדמוניות: כתב-עת לעתיקות ארץ-ישראל וארצות המקרא. נ"ב (157): 4. ISSN   0033-4839. JSTOR   26749426.
  17. ↑ Gadot, Yuval; Adler, Yonatan (2016). "A Quantitative Analysis of Jewish Chalk Vessel Frequencies in Early Roman Jerusalem: A View from the City's Garbage Dump". Israel Exploration Journal. 66 (2): 208. ISSN   0021-2059. JSTOR   44474006.
  18. 1 2 Gadot, Yuval; Adler, Yonatan (2016). "A Quantitative Analysis of Jewish Chalk Vessel Frequencies in Early Roman Jerusalem: A View from the City's Garbage Dump". Israel Exploration Journal. 66 (2): 208–209. ISSN   0021-2059. JSTOR   44474006.
  19. ↑ Reich, Ronny (2021-10-25), CHAPTER 41 LATE SECOND TEMPLE PERIOD STONE VESSELS, Penn State University Press, p. 587, doi:10.1515/9781646021765-042, ISBN   978-1-64602-176-5 , retrieved 2024-07-07
  20. ↑ אדלר, יונתן; Adler, J. (2019). "חידושים במחקר כלי אבן־הקִרטון היהודיים בתקופה הרומית - New Insights in the Study of Roman Period Jewish Chalk Vessels". Qadmoniot: A Journal for the Antiquities of Eretz-Israel and Bible Lands / קדמוניות: כתב-עת לעתיקות ארץ-ישראל וארצות המקרא. נ"ב (157): 4–5. ISSN   0033-4839. JSTOR   26749426.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 אדלר, יונתן; Adler, J. (2019). "חידושים במחקר כלי אבן־הקִרטון היהודיים בתקופה הרומית - New Insights in the Study of Roman Period Jewish Chalk Vessels". Qadmoniot: A Journal for the Antiquities of Eretz-Israel and Bible Lands / קדמוניות: כתב-עת לעתיקות ארץ-ישראל וארצות המקרא. נ"ב (157): 6. ISSN   0033-4839. JSTOR   26749426.
  22. 1 2 Fridman, Sharya (2021). "Chalk-Stone Vessels in the Southern Golan: Archaeological, Historical and Cultural Contexts". Israel Exploration Journal. 71 (2): 180–203. ISSN   0021-2059. JSTOR   27194660.
  23. ↑ Josephus. Wars. 3:46-47, 2:477-478.
  24. 1 2 אדלר, יונתן; Adler, J. (2019). "חידושים במחקר כלי אבן־הקִרטון היהודיים בתקופה הרומית - New Insights in the Study of Roman Period Jewish Chalk Vessels". Qadmoniot: A Journal for the Antiquities of Eretz-Israel and Bible Lands / קדמוניות: כתב-עת לעתיקות ארץ-ישראל וארצות המקרא. נ"ב (157): 8. ISSN   0033-4839. JSTOR   26749426.
  25. ↑ Josephus. Wars. 2:266-270, 284-292, 507-509, 3:414-431.
  26. ↑ Josephus. Antiquities. 19:300-311.
  27. 1 2 Adler, Yonatan; Mizzi, Dennis (2022). "A Roman-Era Chalk Quarry and Chalk-Vessel Workshop at ʿEinot Amitai in the Lower Galilee: A Preliminary Report". Israel Exploration Journal. 72 (1): 113–132. ISSN   0021-2059. JSTOR   27196184.
  28. ↑ Gibson, Shimon (1983). "The Stone Vessel Industry at Ḥizma". Israel Exploration Journal. 33 (3/4): 176–188. ISSN   0021-2059. JSTOR   27925895.
  29. ↑ גל, צבי (1991). "תעשיית כלי אבן בגליל התחתון". 'Atiqot / עתיקות. 20: 25*–26*. ISSN   0792-8424. JSTOR   23457648.
  30. ↑ Reich, Ronny (2021-10-25), CHAPTER 41 LATE SECOND TEMPLE PERIOD STONE VESSELS, Penn State University Press, p. 588, doi:10.1515/9781646021765-042, ISBN   978-1-64602-176-5 , retrieved 2024-07-07
  31. ↑ Gadot, Yuval; Adler, Yonatan (2016). "A Quantitative Analysis of Jewish Chalk Vessel Frequencies in Early Roman Jerusalem: A View from the City's Garbage Dump". Israel Exploration Journal. 66 (2): 209. ISSN   0021-2059. JSTOR   44474006.
  32. ↑ אדלר, יונתן; Adler, J. (2019). "חידושים במחקר כלי אבן־הקִרטון היהודיים בתקופה הרומית - New Insights in the Study of Roman Period Jewish Chalk Vessels". Qadmoniot: A Journal for the Antiquities of Eretz-Israel and Bible Lands / קדמוניות: כתב-עת לעתיקות ארץ-ישראל וארצות המקרא. נ"ב (157): 8. ISSN   0033-4839. JSTOR   26749426.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.