Glossary of archaeology

Last updated

This page is a glossary of archaeology , the study of the human past from material remains.

Contents

A

absolute age
The age of an object with reference to a fixed and specific time scale, as determined by some method of absolute dating, e.g. 10,000 BP or 1.9 mya. [1]
absolute dating
Ascertaining the age of an object with reference to a fixed and specific time scale (e.g. calendar years or radiocarbon years), as opposed to relative dating. [2]
aerial archaeology
Archaeological investigations conducted from the air, e.g. using aerial photography or satellite imagery.
antiquarian
antiquary
A person interested in the collection, curation and/or study of antiquities, particularly in reference to the intellectual tradition that developed in Europe in the 16th–17th centuries and is considered a precursor to modern archaeology. [3]
antiquarianism
An intellectual tradition of inquiry that developed in Europe in the 16th and early 17th centuries AD as a result of new interests in nature, antiquity, the Renaissance of learning, and the addition of time‐depth to people's view of the world. [4]
antiquities
Ancient artefacts, particularly in the context of their trade and collection.
antiquity
The ancient past, in particular the period of the earliest historic civilizations (see classical antiquity).
archaeobotany
Subdiscipline devoted to the analysis of plant remains in the archaeological record.
archaeozoology
See zooarchaeology .
archaeologist
A person engaged in the study or profession of archaeology.
archaeology
archeology
The academic discipline concerned with the study of the human past through material remains.
artefact
artifact
A physical object made by humans.
assemblage
A set of artefacts or ecofacts found together, from the same place and time. [5] [6] Can refer to the total assemblage from a site, or a specific type of artefact, e.g. lithic assemblage, zooarchaeological assemblage. [7]
association
Two or more excavated objects that are thought to be related are said to be in association, e.g. artefacts discovered in close proximity within the same context, or architectural features thought to have been standing at the same time.
avenue
Type of prehistoric monument found in the British Isles, consisting of two parallel lines of standing stones. [8] Examples include the Stonehenge Avenue, Beckhampton Avenue and West Kennet Avenue.

B

The Wheeler-Kenyon method is characterised by intact baulks (pictured here topped with white sandbags) between each excavation unit. Moza-449.jpg
The Wheeler–Kenyon method is characterised by intact baulks (pictured here topped with white sandbags) between each excavation unit.
backfill
1.  To re-fill a trench once an excavation has been completed.
1A.  To re-fill a cut and cover tunnels
1B.  To re-fill unused canals
1C.  To re-fill trenches for gas, water, power and communication lines
2.  Material used for backfilling, usually spoil from the original excavation.
baulk
balk
A wall of earth left in place between excavated areas in order to maintain the structural integrity of the trench and/or expose a section to aid in interpretation.
bladelet
Type of stone tool; a small blade characteristic of Upper Palaeolithic Europe. [9]
box–grid method
See Wheeler–Kenyon method .

C

C14 dating
See radiocarbon dating .
context
1.  Information relating to where an artefact or feature was found and what it was found in association with.
2.  In single context excavation, a well-defined stratigraphic unit relating to a single depositional event, used as the primary unit for recording and analysis.
culture
An archaeological culture is a recurring assemblage of artifacts from a specific time and place that may constitute the material culture remains of a particular past human society.

D

diagnostic
A term used for objects, particularly sherds of pottery, which can be dated to a particular chronological period, and so used to ascertain the date of a particular context.
dig
An informal term for an archaeological excavation.
disturbance
Any change to an archaeological site due to events which occurred after the site was laid down.
dry sieving
A method of sifting artefacts from excavated sediments by shaking it through sieves or meshes of varying sizes. As opposed to wet sieving, which uses water. [10]

E

earthworks
Earthworks are artificial changes in land level, typically made from piles of artificially placed or sculpted rocks and soil
environmental archaeology
Environmental archaeology is the science of reconstructing the relationships between past societies and the environments they lived in.
evaluation
See trial trenching .
excavation
Excavation is the exposure, processing and recording of archaeological remains.

F

fieldwork
Archaeological investigations taking place in the field, e.g. excavations or surveys.
finds
An informal term for artifacts, features and other things discovered by archaeologists.
fill
Material that has accumulated, or been deposited, within a negative feature such as a cut, ditch, or a hollow in a building.
finds processing
The preparation of finds from an excavation for storage or further specialist analysis, typically including washing, labelling, sorting and listing in an inventory.
finds specialist
An archaeologist who specialises in the analysis of a particular type of find, e.g. medieval pottery or prehistoric worked flint.
flotation
Method of separating very small objects from excavated sediments using water. It is particularly important for the recovery of botanical remains and animal bones. [11]
forensic archaeology
Forensic archaeologists employ their knowledge of archaeological techniques and theory in a legal context. This broad description is necessary as forensic archaeology is practiced in a variety of ways around the world. [12]
funerary archaeology
Funerary archaeology is the study of the treatment and commemoration of the dead. It includes the study of human remains, associated artefacts and monuments.

G

geoarchaeology
The application of geology and other earth science techniques to archaeology. [13]
geofact
Rocks or other naturally occurring minerals found in an archaeological context and presumed to have been transported there by humans, but not sufficiently modified to qualify as an artefact. [14]
geoglyph
A form of rock art produced on the ground, either by arranging material on the surface (a positive geoglyph) or removing part of it (a negative geoglyph). [15]
governance archaeology
Governance archaeology seeks to understand the myriad combinations of ways in which people have governed themselves throughout time. A goal in this endeavor is to better understand the full range of options available to modern humans and, to the extent possible, some of the opportunities and pitfalls of different governance characteristics. [16]

H

Maiden Castle in England is one of the largest hillforts in Europe Aerial photograph of Maiden Castle, 1935.jpg
Maiden Castle in England is one of the largest hillforts in Europe
henge
A type of Neolithic earthwork that has a ring-shaped bank and ditch, with the ditch inside the bank.
hillfort
A type of earthwork used as a fortified refuge or defended settlement.
homology
homolog
Similarity in style or form owing to a common origin, as opposed to an analog; see also homology (biology). [17] [18]

I

industrial archaeology
Subdiscipline devoted to the study of past industry and industrial heritage.
industry
A typological classification of stone tools, e.g. the Mousterian industry, the Acheulean industry.
in situ
Features, artefacts and other remains in their original depositional context, cf. unstratified.

J

jar burial
Inhumation of whole human remains in a ceramic vessel, as opposed to the more common urn burial, where only ashes from cremation are interred. [19]

K

K–Ar dating
Potassium–argon dating; a radiometric dating method useful for samples older than 100,000 years. [20]
kerb
kerbstone circle
A circular retaining wall built around certain types of burial mound. [21]
kill site
A site where people slaughtered and/or butchered animals, especially in a Palaeolithic context, e.g. Naco Mammoth Kill Site, Cooper Bison Kill Site. [22]
killed object
An object which has been deliberately broken or damaged in such a way as to make it unusable. [23]
kiln site
In Southeast Asian archaeology, a site that was the centre for manufacture of particular ceramic ware, e.g. Phnom Kulen, Buriram, Go Sanh, Kalong, Sukhothai. [24]

L

locus
See context .

M

matrix
1.  The physical material in which finds and other cultural remains are found, e.g. soil or rock. [25]
2.   Harris matrix; a diagram showing the stratigraphic relations between contexts.
megasite
mega-site
A site that is anomalously large in comparison to others from the same period and region, e.g. PPNB megasites, Trypillia megasites. [26]

N

negative geoglyph
See geoglyph .

O

occupation earth
set of deposits believed to represent in-situ settlement at an archaeological site, containing pottery sherds, ashes, animal remains, etc. [27]

P

Profile photograph of a posthole that has been half-sectioned Siedlung Rosdorf Muhlengrund Firstpfosten Grundriss XXVI.jpg
Profile photograph of a posthole that has been half-sectioned
palaeoethnobotany
paleoethnobotany
See archaeobotany .
plan
Horizontal exposure of an excavated area, feature or artefact (as seen from above); a drawing or photograph of the same.
ploughsoil
The soil down to the level at which it will have been disturbed by ploughing.
pollen diagram
pollen profile
pollen spectrum
A series of side-by-side graphs, produced by archaeobotanists and palynologists, showing the frequency of different types (species) of pollen in a soil sample by depth. Usually presented vertically, with the shallowest samples at the top and the deepest at the bottom, to represent a pollen core or other stratified deposit. The depth of the sample corresponds roughly to how old it is, and therefore the vertical axis may also contain an estimate of its absolute age. Used to visualise the environmental history of the place where the sample was taken. [28] [29]
positive geoglyph
See geoglyph .
posthole
Cut feature that once held an upright timber or stone structural member, which can be recognised even after the (wooden) post has decayed because its fill differs from the sediment around it. [30]
postpipe
Remains of an upright timber placed in a posthole.[ citation needed ]
potassium–argon dating
See K–Ar dating .
potsherd
A fragment of pottery. [31] In specialised usage sherd is preferred over the more common spelling shard, where sherd refers to ceramics and shard to glass. [32]
profile
Vertical exposure of an excavated area, feature or artefact (as seen from the side), possibly also in section; a drawing or photograph of the same.

Q

quarter sectioning
Sometimes called digging by quadrant, it is a procedure for excavating discrete features (especially those circular or ovoid in shape) where two diagonally opposite quadrants are removed, resulting in two complete cross-sections of a feature.

R

radiocarbon dating
absolute dating technique used to determine the age of organic materials less than 50,000 years old. Age is determined by examining the loss of the unstable carbon-14 isotope, which is absorbed by all living organisms during their lifespan. The rate of decay of this unstable isotope after the organism has died is assumed to be constant, and is measured in half-lives of 5730 + 40 years, meaning that the amount of carbon-14 is reduced to half the amount after about 5730 years. Dates generated by radiocarbon dating have to be calibrated using dates derived from other absolute dating methods, such as dendrochronology and ice cores.[ citation needed ]

S

screening
See sieving
season
A period of time spent working on a particular site or field project.
section
A section is a view of the archaeological sequence showing it in the vertical plane, as a cross section, showing the stratigraphy.
sherd
See potsherd
shovel test pit
test holes, usually dug out by a shovel, in order to determine whether the soil contains any cultural remains that are not visible on the surface.
shovelbum
A colloquial term for professional excavators working in cultural resources management in the United States.
sieving
The use of sieves, screens, and meshes to improve the recovery rate of artefacts from excavated sediments (spoil). Can be divided into dry sieving and wet sieving. [10]
spoil
Loose sediment excavated from a trench.
spoil heap
A pile of sediment from an excavation, usually located next to a trench.

T

trial trenching
A method of archaeological evaluation used to estimate the archaeological potential of a site. [33]
typology
The classification of objects according to their physical characteristics.

U

An underwater archaeologist recording a feature in plan Scale drawing underwater.jpg
An underwater archaeologist recording a feature in plan
underwater archaeology
Subdiscipline devoted to the study of archaeological remains submerged under seas, lakes, or rivers. [34]
unenclosed
See enclosure .
uniface
Stone tool or other artefact that has only been worked on one side, cf. biface. [35] [36]
unit
1.  In stratigraphic excavation, a context. [37]
2.  In British commercial archaeology, a company providing archaeological services, e.g. the Birmingham University Field Archaeology Unit. [37]
univallate
Hillfort or other enclosed settlement surrounded by a single line of walls or ramparts, cf. multivallate. [38]
unurned
Cremation burial where the remains were not placed in a container (urn), typical of the Early to Middle Bronze Age in Northern Europe. [39]
updraught kiln
updraft kiln
Type of ceramic kiln which works by drawing hot air from a fire placed adjacent to or below the material to be fired. [40]
urban archaeology
Subdiscipline devoted to the study of archaeology in major cities and towns. [41]
urn
Pottery vessel in which cremated remains were placed for interment; sometimes specially made, but often a repurposed domestic container. [42]
urnfield
Cemetery containing cremation burials in urns. Typical of Late Bronze Age Europe and the eponymous Urnfield culture. [43]
use-wear
Microscopic traces of wear, damage or residue left on the surface of an artefact from use. Use-wear analysis involves studying these traces to discern the function of a tool. [44]

V

virtual archaeology
A subfield of digital archeology that creates and use virtual models and simulations of archaeological sites, artifacts, and processes. [45]

W

Wet sieving Washing-sieving, samples from Calvero de la Higuera, Pinilla del Valle, Madrid, Spain 02.JPG
Wet sieving
watching brief
A formal programme of observation and investigation conducted during any operation carried out for non-archaeological reasons.
wet sieving
The use of flowing water to force excavated sediment through a screen or mesh and recover small artefacts. It is more effective than dry sieving in heavier soils and, as part of the process of flotation, can be used to recover very small organic remains. [10]
Wheeler–Kenyon method
box–grid method
Excavation strategy where an area is divided into a grid of square trenches and baulks are left between each square, exposing the site in both plan and profile. Developed by Mortimer Wheeler and Tessa Wheeler at Verulamium (1930–35) and refined by Kathleen Kenyon at Jericho (1952–58). [46]

X

X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
Method of analysing the chemical composition of an object by exposing it to X-rays and examining the resulting secondary (fluorescent) X-rays emitted. [47]

Y

yield
Information important in prehistory or history. [48]

Z

zooarchaeology
Subdiscipline devoted to the analysis of animal remains in the archaeological record.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Archaeological excavation</span> Exposure, processing and recording of archaeological remains

In archaeology, excavation is the exposure, processing and recording of archaeological remains. An excavation site or "dig" is the area being studied. These locations range from one to several areas at a time during a project and can be conducted over a few weeks to several years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paleoethnobotany</span> Study of plants used by people in ancient times

Paleoethnobotany, or archaeobotany, is the study of past human-plant interactions through the recovery and analysis of ancient plant remains. Both terms are synonymous, though paleoethnobotany is generally used in North America and acknowledges the contribution that ethnographic studies have made towards our current understanding of ancient plant exploitation practices, while the term archaeobotany is preferred in Europe and emphasizes the discipline's role within archaeology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artifact (archaeology)</span> Objects created and used by humans

An artifact or artefact is a general term for an item made or given shape by humans, such as a tool or a work of art, especially an object of archaeological interest. In archaeology, the word has become a term of particular nuance; it is defined as an object recovered by archaeological endeavor, including cultural artifacts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban archaeology</span> Archaeological sub-discipline

Urban archaeology is a sub discipline of archaeology specializing in the material past of towns and cities where long-term human habitation has often left a rich record of the past. In modern times, when someone talks about living in a city, they are in an area with many surrounding people and buildings, generally quite tall ones. In archaeological terms, cities give great information because of the infrastructure they have and amounts of people that were around one another. Through the years there has been one big method used for urban archaeology along with significant historic developments.

Archaeological science consists of the application of scientific techniques to the analysis of archaeological materials and sites. It is related to methodologies of archaeology. Martinón-Torres and Killick distinguish ‘scientific archaeology’ from ‘archaeological science’. Martinón-Torres and Killick claim that ‘archaeological science’ has promoted the development of high-level theory in archaeology. However, Smith rejects both concepts of archaeological science because neither emphasize falsification or a search for causality.

Archaeological subfields are typically characterised by a focus on a specific method, type of material, geographical, chronological, or other thematic categories. Among academic disciplines, archaeology, in particular, often can be found in cross-disciplinary research due to the inherent multidisciplinary and geographical nature of the field in general. The lived human experience is vast and varied and reconstructing those lifeways and their consequences requires problem solving from numerous angles. In general, archaeologists work backwards with their research, starting with what is already known.

Cuddie Springs is a notable archaeological and paleontological site in the semi-arid zone of central northern New South Wales, Australia, near Carinda in Walgett Shire. Cuddie Springs is an open site, with the fossil deposits preserved in a claypan on the floor of an ancient ephemeral lake. The claypan fills with water after local rainstorms and often takes months to dry, a fact which facilitated the survival of fossils over a long period of time.

The Valletta Treaty (formally the European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage (Revised), also known as the Malta Convention) is a multilateral treaty of the Council of Europe. The 1992 treaty aims to protect the European archaeological heritage "as a source of European collective memory and as an instrument for historical and scientific study". All remains and objects and any other traces of humankind from past times are considered to be elements of the archaeological heritage. The archaeological heritage shall include structures, constructions, groups of buildings, developed sites, moveable objects, monuments of other kinds as well as their context, whether situated on land or under water." (Art. 1)

In archaeology, seriation is a relative dating method in which assemblages or artifacts from numerous sites in the same culture are placed in chronological order. Where absolute dating methods, such as radio carbon, cannot be applied, archaeologists have to use relative dating methods to date archaeological finds and features. Seriation is a standard method of dating in archaeology. It can be used to date stone tools, pottery fragments, and other artifacts. In Europe, it has been used frequently to reconstruct the chronological sequence of graves in a cemetery.

Post-excavation analysis constitutes processes that are used to study archaeological materials after an excavation is completed. Since the advent of "New Archaeology" in the 1960s, the use of scientific techniques in archaeology has grown in importance. This trend is directly reflected in the increasing application of the scientific method to post-excavation analysis. The first step in post-excavation analysis should be to determine what one is trying to find out and what techniques can be used to provide answers. Techniques chosen will ultimately depend on what type of artifact(s) one wishes to study. This article outlines processes for analyzing different artifact classes and describes popular techniques used to analyze each class of artifact. Keep in mind that archaeologists frequently alter or add techniques in the process of analysis as observations can alter original research questions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dispilio</span> Village in Macedonia, Greece

Dispilio is a village near Lake Orestiada, in the Kastoria regional unit of Western Macedonia, Greece. Near the village is an archaeological site containing remains of a Neolithic lakeshore settlement that occupied an artificial island.

Brahmagiri is an archaeological site located in the Chitradurga district of the state of Karnataka, India. Legend has it that this is the site where sage Gautama Maharishi and his wife Ahalya lived. He was one among seven noted Hindu saints. This site was first explored by Benjamin L. Rice in 1891, who discovered rock edicts of Emperor Ashoka here. These rock edicts indicated that the locality was termed as Isila and denoted the southernmost extent of the Mauryan empire. The Brahmagiri site is a granite outcrop elevated about 180 m. above the surrounding plains and measures around 500 m east-west and 100 m north-south. It is well known for the large number of megalithic monuments that have been found here. The earliest settlement found here has been dated to at least the 2nd millennium BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russian geoglyph</span> Geoglyph in Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia

The Russian geoglyph refers to a geoglyph on slopes of the Zyuratkul Mountains in the Chelyabinsk region in Russia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tall Jawa</span>

Tall Jawa is an archaeological and historical site in central Jordan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mladeč caves</span> Cave complex and archaeological site in the Czech Republic

The Mladečské Caves are a cave complex in the municipality of Mladeč in the Czech Republic. It is located in the Třesín National Nature Monument within the Litovelské Pomoraví Protected Landscape Area.

Dewil Valley, located in the northernmost part of Palawan, an island province of the Philippines that is located in the Mimaropa region, is an archaeological site composed of thousands of artifacts and features. According to the University of the Philippines Archaeological Studies Program, or UP-ASP, the closest settlement can be found in New Ibajay, which is covered by the town capital of El Nido, which is located around 9 km (5.6 mi) south-east of Dewil Valley. Physically it measures around 7 km (4.3 mi) long, and 4 km (2.5 mi) wide. It is in this place which the Ille Cave, one of the main archaeological sites, can be found. It is actually a network of 3 cave mouths located at its base. It has been discovered that this site in particular has been used and occupied by humans over multiple time periods.

Shanga is an archaeological site located in Pate Island off the eastern coast of Africa. The site covers about 15 hectares. Shanga was excavated during an eight-year period in which archaeologists examined Swahili origins. The archaeological evidence in the form of coins, pottery, glass and beads all suggest that a Swahili community inhabited the area during the eighth century. Evidence from the findings also indicates that the site was a Muslim trading community that had networks in Asia.

Munsa is an archaeological site in Uganda, located in the south-eastern part of Bunyoro, and is commonly recognized by a rocky hill known by the locals as "Bikegete", which is enclosed within an earthworks system of ancient ditches. The site is approximately 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north-west of Kakumiro township in Bugangaizi County, Kakumiro District. "Munsa" is a Runyoro(Lunyoro/Runyoro Edited by Nicholas Aliganyira Nkuuna) name that means "in the trenches". The architects of the earthworks are unknown, although it has been speculated that the site can be linked to the Bachwezi. There is no evidence for this, however, and it seems likely that association of Munsa with the Bachwezi or Chwezi is a recent development.

Chronological dating, or simply dating, is the process of attributing to an object or event a date in the past, allowing such object or event to be located in a previously established chronology. This usually requires what is commonly known as a "dating method". Several dating methods exist, depending on different criteria and techniques, and some very well known examples of disciplines using such techniques are, for example, history, archaeology, geology, paleontology, astronomy and even forensic science, since in the latter it is sometimes necessary to investigate the moment in the past during which the death of a cadaver occurred. These methods are typically identified as absolute, which involves a specified date or date range, or relative, which refers to dating which places artifacts or events on a timeline relative to other events and/or artifacts. Other markers can help place an artifact or event in a chronology, such as nearby writings and stratigraphic markers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aigyr-Zhal 2</span>

Aigyr-Zhal 2 is a historical site in Naryn city on the territory of University of Central Asia (UCA), Kyrgyzstan. It is a part of a bigger and more complex site Aigyr-Zhal. It is dated between Mesolithic time and the Middle Ages. Aigyr-Zhal is the only site in the Tian-Shan that has evidence of human occupation from Mesolithic time till the Turkic period . It was first discovered in 1953 by Akhmat Kibirov. However, during the Soviet time the site was partially destroyed, therefore it was impossible to research the site for a long time. Only in 2012 it was first researched by Kubat Tabaldiev's archaeological team. The length of Aigyr-Zhal 2 is 300 metres, while the width is 100 metres, and the height of the site is 2026 metres above the sea level. Since 2002 the whole Aigyr-Zhal complex has been on the list of national importance of Kyrgyzstan.

References

  1. ↑ Kipfer 2000, p. 2, "absolute age".
  2. ↑ Kipfer 2000, p. 2, "absolute dating".
  3. ↑ Darvill 2009, "antiquarian".
  4. ↑ Darvill 2009, "antiquarianism".
  5. ↑ Renfrew & Bahn 2008, p. 578.
  6. ↑ Kipfer, Barbara Ann. "Assemblage". Archaeology Wordsmith. Retrieved 2 February 2019.
  7. ↑ Feder 2008, p. 93.
  8. ↑ Robb 1998, note 6.
  9. ↑ Darvill 2009, "bladelet".
  10. 1 2 3 Kipfer 2000, p. 514, "sieving".
  11. ↑ "Flotation Method in Archaeology". About.com Education. Archived from the original on 2017-01-09. Retrieved 2017-01-08.
  12. ↑ Groen, W.J. Mike; Márquez-Grant, Nicholas; Janaway, Robert C. (2015). Forensic archaeology: A global perspective. ISBN   9781118745977.
  13. ↑ Kipfer 2000, p. 205, "geoarchaeology".
  14. ↑ Kipfer 2000, p. 205, "geofact".
  15. ↑ Kipfer 2000, p. 205, "geoglyph".
  16. ↑ Carugati, Federica; Schneider, Nathan (February 28, 2023). "Governance Archaeology: Research as Ancestry". Daedalus . 152 (1): 245–257. doi: 10.1162/daed_a_01985 – via MIT Press Direct.
  17. ↑ Lyman, R. Lee (2001). "Culture historical and biological approaches to identifying homologous traits". In Hurt, Teresa D.; Rakita, Gordon F. M. (eds.). Style and function: Conceptual issues in evolutionary archaeology. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 69–89. ISBN   978-0897897327.
  18. ↑ Lyman, R. Lee; O'Brien, Michael J. (2001). "The Direct Historical Approach, Analogical Reasoning, and Theory in Americanist Archaeology". Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory. 8 (4): 303–342. doi:10.1023/A:1013736416067. JSTOR   20177446.
  19. ↑ Bray & Trump 1970, p. 117, "jar burial".
  20. ↑ Kipfer 2000, p. 271, "K–Ar dating".
  21. ↑ Kipfer 2000, p. 275, "kerb".
  22. ↑ Kipfer 2000, p. 279, "kill site".
  23. ↑ Adams, Jenny L. (2008). "Beyond the Broken". In Rowan, Yorke M.; Ebling, Jennie R. (eds.). New Approaches to Old Stones. Sheffield: Equinox. p. 217.
  24. ↑ Kipfer 2000, p. 279, "kiln site".
  25. ↑ Kipfer 2000, p. 339, "matrix".
  26. ↑ "What to Do with "Megasites" in Prehistory? Further Exploring the "Megasite" Conundrum". The Digital Archaeological Record. Digital Antiquity.
  27. ↑ Barker, Philip (1993). Techniques of archaeological excavation (3rd ed.). B. T. Batsford. p. 138. ISBN   978-0-7134-7169-4.
  28. ↑ Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2010). "pollen diagram". Archaeology Wordsmith. Retrieved 2017-01-31.
  29. ↑ "How To Read A Pollen Diagram". Maryland Archeobotany. Jefferson Patterson Park and Museum. Retrieved 2017-01-31.
  30. ↑ Bray & Trump 1970, p. 185, "post hole".
  31. ↑ Kipfer, Barbara A. (2002). "sherd". Archaeology Wordsmith. Archived from the original on April 8, 2014. Retrieved April 6, 2014.
  32. ↑ "shard". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary . Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2019-10-10.
  33. ↑ Chartered Institute for Archaeologists (CIfA) (2020). Standard and guidance for archaeological field evaluation (PDF).
  34. ↑ Darvill 2009, "underwater archaeology".
  35. ↑ Darvill 2009, "unifacial flaking".
  36. ↑ Darvill 2009, "unifacial tool".
  37. 1 2 Darvill 2009, "unit".
  38. ↑ Darvill 2009, "univallate hillfort".
  39. ↑ Darvill 2009, "unurned cremation".
  40. ↑ Darvill 2009, "updraught kiln".
  41. ↑ Darvill 2009, "urban archaeology".
  42. ↑ Darvill 2009, "urn".
  43. ↑ Darvill 2009, "urnfield".
  44. ↑ Darvill 2009, "use-wear (microwear) analysis".
  45. ↑ "Educational & Virtual Tours Resources List". archaeological.org. Archaeological Institute of America. Retrieved 2 December 2024.
  46. ↑ Dever, William G.; Lance, H. Darrell (1982). Manual of Field Excavation: Handbook for Field Archaeologists. New York: Jewish Institute of Religion. pp. 50–51. ISBN   9780878203031.
  47. ↑ Bray & Trump 1970, p. 258, "X-ray fluorescence".
  48. ↑ "Determining which archaeological sites are significant: Evaluation". achp.gov. Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. Retrieved 3 December 2024.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.