The Straight Corporation Ltd was a significant operator of British airlines, airports and flying clubs from 1935 until the mid 1970s. Its major unit, Western Airways, expanded to become an important parts manufacturer, a maintenance, repair and upgrade organisation, and a builder of transport aircraft.
Whitney Willard Straight was a successful racing driver in the early 1930s, but his American millionaire mother and English step-father, Dorothy and Leonard Elmhirst, were concerned for his safety and sought a less dangerous occupation for him, especially as he was about to marry. At a dinner at their home, Dartington Hall in Devon, they discussed this with William (Bill) Parkhouse, who was the owner of a local auto engineering company, and founder of Haldon Airfield, where Straight had learned to fly a few years earlier.[1]
Parkhouse had been concerned that smaller airports, such as Exeter and Torquay, with which he was also involved, and smaller airlines, were too small to survive on their own, and he proposed that a holding company operating many such ventures would be able to achieve economies of scale and be able to use resources much more efficiently, sharing them as needed. Straight was summoned the next day, and readily agreed to found the venture, so on 17 April 1935 Straight Corporation was born, and Straight gave up motor racing.[1]
The corporation was funded by Straight's own trust, with the objective of controlling up to 15 municipal airports, with first-class terminals, restaurants and flight training facilities.[2] The headquarters were at 17 Manchester Square, London W.1.
Straight recruited several friends as directors in his corporation. These included Bill Parkhouse; Louis Strange; Richard Seaman, a fellow racing driver whom he had met while they were both at Cambridge University;[3] and Straight's solicitor, Frederick A.S. Gwatkin.[4] Both Seaman and Gwatkin invested in the company. Company secretary was Stanley John Cox, who would also be the secretary of most of the corporation's subsidiary companies. Many of the corporation's aircraft would be initially registered in the name of Richard Seaman. Straight also recruited Mary De Bunsen who carried out public relations and was responsible for the house magazine, Straightaway, intended for staff and club members.
The progress and growth of the corporation went on unabated as detailed below, and the expansion became even faster at the airports with the demand for aircrew training in the two years before World War II. When the war came, however, all private flying, including that by clubs and airlines, was prohibited except under licence, and almost all the corporation's activities stopped.
Airlines
Southern Airways Ltd
This was a new company, registered at Straight Corporation headquarters in Manchester Square, London and its main operating base was Ramsgate Airport.[5] It was mainly concerned with pleasure, charter and army co-operation flights, but also ran scheduled services along the Thames Estuary. Its fleet varied depending on its needs and those of the other of Straight Corporation companies, sometimes operating aircraft registered to them, and sometimes lending their aircraft to them. Several aircraft were at first registered to Richard Seaman, possibly reflecting his investment in the corporation. The larger aircraft most often used by Southern Airways included:
In January 1938 Straight Corporation bought a controlling share in Norman Edgar (Western Airways) Ltd, renaming it Western Airways Ltd. At that time it was operating the highest frequency of flights of any airline in the world, with 58 services a day on the Weston — Cardiff route alone.[7]
The airline prospered and expanded its fleet and routes, and developed a strong engineering capability, which enabled it to survive WWII. It carried this on after the war, even building Bristol Freighters. Activity then started to wind down and the company was wound up in 1978.
Airports
The corporation set out to operate a large chain of civil airports. Some were bought outright, some leased, and some managed on behalf of the owners. All were run by a local operating company, and aero clubs were established or taken over at most airports. In addition to the locations listed below, attempts to lease Norwich Airport, Stoke-on-Trent Meir airfield and Cardiff's Pengam Moors airport were rejected.[4]
Aircraft were owned by the airport operating company or the associated flying clubs, and were occasionally registered in the names of officials of the local organisations. They were used for charter, pleasure, training or army co-operation support flights as required, and were also often transferred between different Straight-operated airports, clubs or airlines as needs arose.
Many airports took part in the Civil Air Guard (CAG) scheme which started 1 September 1938. When the scheme began there were 1,299 applications to train at Straight Corporation-operated CAG airports. Extra Hornet Moths were acquired for this, and Straight's CAG courses started on 1 October. In 1939 Elementary and Reserve Flying Training schools (E&RFTS) were set up at some airports, and the fleet was expanded further with aircraft including Tiger Moths, Piper J-4 Cubs, Hillson Pragas and an Avro Anson.[1]
The following list of Straight Corporation's airfields gives a brief account of their activities at each one. With the start of World War II in September 1939 all civil aviation activities stopped.
Bury St Edmunds
Westley Airfield was opened in May 1938 by Straight Corporation, and was operated at first by Bury St Edmunds Airport Ltd as a satellite of Ipswich Airport, and later by Southern Airways.[8] A municipal airport was planned but never started.[2] West Suffolk Aero Club Ltd was set up with two Taylorcraft aircraft, and two small hangars built. Too small for CAG use, civilian flying stopped at the outbreak of WWII and the airfield was taken over by the RAF as RAF Westley.[9]
Clacton
This airfield was taken over in 1938 as a satellite of Ipswich. The airport was known as Earls Hall Airport[10] or Alton Park Road Airport.[11] There is no record of a flying club here at the time.
Exeter
Exeter Airport at Clyst Honiton was the second airport operated by Straight Corporation, starting in January 1936. Exeter Airport Ltd, with Bill Parkhouse as manager, took a 21-year lease starting on 1 June 1937, and the field officially opened on 30 July. At first there was only tented accommodation,[12] but a new terminal designed by Henning and Chitty was completed in 1938.[13]
Exeter Aero Club was formed, and it participated in the CAG scheme. No 37 E&RFTS started on 3 July 1939.
At the start of WWII the airport was taken over by the Air Ministry and managed as a State Airport.[14] During the war the airport was active, and 601 Squadron was based here in late 1940, during which time Flight Lieutenant Whitney Straight, flying a Hawker Hurricane, claimed to have shot down a Heinkel He 111.[13] After the war, the airport was transferred to the Ministry of Civil Aviation on 1 January 1947. Exeter Airport Ltd leased it, with Wing Commander Bill Parkhouse (he had been promoted during the war) in charge, and also re-established Exeter Aero Club.[15] The lease ended in 1974 when Devon County Council took responsibility for the airport.[13]
Haldon
Haldon Airport, later known as Teignmouth Aerodrome, was Devon's first airfield, and the airfield where Whitney Straight learned to fly in 1929. The corporation's Haldon Airport Ltd took over the management of the airfield from 1 January 1937 and bought it outright in 1938 after the scheduled airlines serving it had moved to Exeter in 1937.
The South Devon Flying Club had started here in 1933,[16] but when the corporation took over it became a branch of the Plymouth and District Aero Club.[5] When the CAG scheme started the Haldon club received 19 applications.[1]
The airfield saw some military activity during WWII, but closed in 1946.
Herne Bay
Straight Corporation was reported to have licensed an airfield at Pouts Field, Swalecliffe in 1938.[1] The location of this airfield is unclear,[17] and apart from some pleasure flights, no other aviation activity has been reported there.
The corporation took over the management of the airfield in 1937, forming Inverness Airport Ltd and Inverness Aero Club. After considerable activity during WWII, the airfield reopened, mainly for BEA services, but closed in 1947.[19]
Ipswich
Ipswich Airport was the third airport taken over by Straight Corporation, in February 1936.[4] Ipswich Airport Ltd managed it and took over Ipswich Aero Club which was already established. A new terminal building was designed by Henning and Chitty, and opened on 9 May 1938, with an official opening ceremony on 9 July. It became a Grade 2 listed building in 1996.
The CAG scheme was adopted here, and in 1939 No 45 E&RFTS was established.[1]
The corporation established an engine workshop in 1939, which worked for the corporation's own fleet and took on outside work.[20]
Newquay
Newquay's Trebelzue Big Field was first used for flying on 27 and 28 August 1933 by Alan Cobham's National Aviation Day tour,[21] and used for occasional flying afterwards. Straight's corporation leased it in 1938 as a potential municipal airport,[1] and Western Airways started services the same year.
In WWII the field was incorporated into RAF St Mawgan which was built adjacent to it.[13]
Plymouth
Plymouth (Roborough) Airport was the fourth airport to be taken over by Straight Corporation, in March 1936. It was managed by Plymouth Airport Ltd, and the Plymouth and District Aero Club was taken over, later setting up a branch at Haldon.[5] It operated the CAG training scheme from 1938.
The airport reopened for civil traffic after the war in March 1947, and the aero club not only restarted, but managed the airport for the local council.[13]
Ramsgate
Ramsgate Airport was the first to be taken over by Straight Corporation, who often called it Thanet. It was operated by Ramsgate Airport Ltd which was formed on 25 July 1935. Its directors were Mr F.A.S. Gwatkin, Richard Seaman and Whitney Straight. The official opening of the new terminal, incorporating the control tower, was on 21 August 1937. The existing Ramsgate Flying Club was replaced by the Thanet Aero Club. It took part in the CAG training scheme.[22]
The company also set up on the airfield a tented holiday camp with its own clubhouse. For the 1936 and 1937 summer seasons it was called the Ramsgate Aviation Holiday Camp, and it was renamed the Ramsgate Flying Centre for the following two years. It offered guests free pleasure flights and a free flying lesson.[23]
Swansea
Jersey Marine Airport had started in 1928, and been the base of Wales Airways. The airport was purchased [24] or leased[4] from the Earl of Jersey, who was a personal friend of Straight. The corporation planned to develop it into a municipal airport. It was licensed on 14 July 1938 and Western Airways routes started to Weston and Bristol. No development or terminal had been achieved before WWII.
Weston-super-Mare
Weston Airport was the base of Western Airways, and its holding company, Airways Union, operated the airport. Straight took over all their operations in January 1938. A new terminal/engineering building was planned but, because of disagreements with the council, never built.
Western Airways Aero Club was formed in 1937, and on 10 March 1938 was renamed Weston Aero Club on the corporation's takeover.[25] It joined the CAG training scheme on 1 October 1938. No 39 E&RFTS was set up on 3 July 1939 and a new hangar built to cope with the expansion.[1]
At the start of WWII the airport was taken over by the Air Ministry and managed as a State Airport.[14] After WWII, the flying club restarted on 7 June 1946, renamed the Weston Aero Club. It continued until rising costs caused Western Airways to withdraw its support, and the club was wound up in October 1949.[26]
Aircraft
Before WWII, Straight Corporation used a wide variety of aircraft, some inherited from the airlines and flying clubs that it took over, and many bought new.
The pre-war company aircraft livery, applied to many, but not all, of the aircraft, was a dark metallic blue-grey with crimson lettering outlined in white, with rudders bearing crimson and white horizontal stripes. After the war the livery was overall silver with red lettering, retaining the horizontal rudder stripes.
Miles M.11A Whitney Straight G-AERV (never owned by Straight Corporation)
Wanting to provide a modern, comfortable and economical monoplane for his flying clubs, Straight commissioned FG Miles to design a side-by-side seating touring aircraft, which became the Miles M.11A, named the Whitney Straight.[1] This proved to be an excellent and popular aircraft, and 50 were built from April 1936 to April 1938, and Straight Corporation did buy several. A company called Whitney Straight Ltd was formed to market the aircraft.[27]
With Western Airways came a fleet of de Havilland twin-engined aircraft: Dragons and Dragon Rapides, to which were added a Dragonfly and a four-engined DH.86 Express. Inherited aircraft were painted in Straight corporation colours, but had Western Airways marked on both sides of the nose along with a Straight Corporation S logo.
On 1 January 1939 Straight Aviation Training Ltd was formed with a view to commercial flying training, and Neville Cumming DFC, an ex Imperial Airwaysflying boat captain, was appointed director of training. A civil air navigation school was established at Weston, as was an engineering school to provide skilled staff for the growing maintenance demands of Western Airways.
Consultancy
Despite having had the beautiful terminal at Ramsgate designed by art decoarchitect David Playdell-Bouverie,[22] Straight had formed a close working relationship with Robert Henning and Anthony M Chitty. They had worked at Straight's parents' home, Dartington Hall, and Chitty learned to fly to help him appreciate the details of airport siting, design, construction and operation. Thus it was Chitty who, starting in 1938, led an Aerodrome Consultancy Service under the banner of Straight Corporation. They designed the corporation's terminals at Ipswich, Exeter and Weston.
Model making
Woodason Aircraft Models was started by Victor Woodason in 1936 at Heston Airport.[29] It became an associate of Straight Corporation in the early part of the war. The models were used mainly for photographic purposes for aircraft recognition. These were in great demand and a further factory was opened at Weston Airport during the early years of WWII.[30] Work continued after the war, making extremely detailed models for radar stealth testing of all types of land vehicles, ships, aircraft and missiles for the National Radar Target Modelling Centre (NRTMC) that was being run by EMI.
World War II
When war was declared all civil airports were closed and civil flying banned, except under special license. This effectively stopped all Straight Corporation's activities, with the one exception of Western Airways. Their engineering activities prospered with contracts from British aircraft manufacturers, mainly for parts manufacture and repair, and British and Allied forces for repair, modification and maintenance.
The aviation scene was very different after the war. Airlines were restructured and nationalised, and many airports had either been closed or retained by the military. Private flying had ceased after almost all the aircraft had been impressed and many had been either wrecked or scrapped, so the activity would take a decade to recover.
Straight Corporation's head office had moved from London to Weston Airport, where Western Airways had been very busy, mainly on engineering work and aircraft production.[31]
The flying clubs were resurrected after the war, with Weston Aero Club being the first, in June 1946. Plymouth and Exeter followed, but the clubs in Suffolk and Essex were replaced by the Home Counties Flying Club, with bases at Radlett and Willingale in Essex. Willingale had been an early USAAF base, known later as RAF Chipping Ongar, built by the Americans in 1942–3, and used most recently by the RAF Technical Training Command.[32]
Western Airways and the remaining clubs were able to reclaim some of their pre-war aircraft, and some others were acquired, including Miles Magisters and ten Fairchild Argus 24Ws which were being sold off very cheaply by the RAF.[33]
Fairchild Argus 24W fleet – at first all were registered to Home Counties Aero Club at Willingale:[34]
G-AJOW ex EV790
G-AJOX ex FK352
G-AJOY ex FK358
G-AJOZ ex FK338
G-AJPA ex FK343
G-AJPB ex EV782
G-AJPC ex FK315
G-AJPD ex FK357
G-AJSA ex HM174
G-AJSB ex EV810
After WWII Neville Cumming was reappointed after his RAF service as head of Straight Aviation Training Ltd, and formed the Central Navigation School and The London Link Trainer Centre as subsidiaries. These were both based at Bush House in the Aldwych in London.[35] Other directors of Straight Aviation Training Ltd were Whitney Straight, Louis Strange, and Francis Chichester who, after his record-breaking flight from Britain to Australia and New Zealand had become a senior navigation officer at the RAF's Central Flying School. A fleet of Avro Ansons was procured, modified as navigation trainers by Western Airways at Weston and painted in the new Straight livery of overall silver with red lettering and retaining the red horizontal rudder stripes. They operated from Willingale.[32]
Avro Anson 1 navigation trainers of Straight Aviation Training Ltd:
G-AIEZ ex NK728
G-AIFA ex EF928
G-AIFB ex EG593
G-AIFC ex EG391
G-AIFD ex DJ492
G-AINZ ex MG281
G-AIOA ex NK601
G-AIOB ex NK843
The Ansons were in use from 1946 to 1948, after which they were returned to Weston Airport for refurbishing and sale. The company was wound up in 1949.[32]
Whitney Straight himself had embarked on a new path, starting a glittering career as a major figure in British aviation. He became a director, later chairman,[36] of the Royal Aero Club and, in August 1946, deputy chairman of the British European Airways Corporation. He went on to become vice chairman and chief executive of BOAC, and hold very high positions in Rolls-Royce and other major British companies.
With all of these responsibilities, his activities for the corporation had to be severely reduced and in 1949 the organisation was restructured. The remaining companies were renamed to avoid the Straight name, for example Straight Aviation Training became Southern Aviation Training.[37] Western Airways' airline operations had restarted quite successfully for a while, and its engineering activities prospered, but both soon declined and were abandoned, and the organisation eventually ran down. The corporation effectively stopped its activities by 1978, when the last of the main companies, Western Airways, closed. Whitney Straight died in London in 1979, and the last vestiges of Straight Corporation were wound up in 1989.[38]
Footnotes
↑ There is confusion about exactly which airport was served by Southern at Ilford, as there appear to have been four different airfields next to each other. The most likely is the one named Chigwell, which seems to have only operated from 1938 to 1939.[6]
See also
National Flying Services Ltd., an earlier similar concept which, despite government aid, collapsed in 1934.
Related Research Articles
Bristol Airport, at Lulsgate Bottom, on the northern slopes of the Mendip Hills, in North Somerset, is an international airport serving the city of Bristol, England, and the surrounding area. It is 7 nautical miles southwest of Bristol city centre. Built on the site of a former RAF airfield, it opened in 1957 as Bristol (Lulsgate) Airport, replacing Bristol (Whitchurch) Airport as Bristol's municipal airport. From 1997 to 2010, it was known as Bristol International Airport. In 1997, a majority shareholding in the airport was sold to FirstGroup, and then in 2001 the airport was sold to a joint venture of Macquarie Bank and others. In September 2014, Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan bought out Macquarie to become the sole owner.
Exeter Airport, formerly Exeter International Airport, is an international airport located at Clyst Honiton in East Devon, close to the city of Exeter and within the county of Devon, South West England. Exeter has a CAA Public Use Aerodrome Licence that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction. The airport offers both scheduled and holiday charter flights within the United Kingdom and Europe.
Stapleford Aerodrome is an operational general aviation aerodrome in the Epping Forest district of Essex, England, near the village of Abridge. It is about 3.4 nautical miles south of North Weald Airfield and 4.5 NM north of Romford. The airfield is just within the M25, close to the junction with the M11.
Gloucestershire Airport, formerly Staverton Airport, is a small airport at Churchdown, England. It lies 3.5 nautical miles west of Cheltenham, near the city of Gloucester and close to the M5 motorway. Its operator claims it to be Gloucestershire's largest general aviation airfield, and it is regularly used for private charter flights to destinations such as Jersey and Guernsey.
Ipswich Airport was an airfield on the outskirts of Ipswich, Suffolk England. It was known as RAF Nacton when No. 3619 Fighter Control Unit of the Royal Auxiliary Air Force were based there.
Heston Aerodrome was an airfield located to the west of London, England, operational between 1929 and 1947. It was situated on the border of the Heston and Cranford areas of Hounslow, Middlesex. In September 1938, the British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, flew from Heston to Germany three times in two weeks for talks with Adolf Hitler, and returned to Heston from the Munich Conference with the paper referred to in his later "Peace for our time" speech from 10 Downing Street.
Weston Airport, also called Dublin Weston Airport, is a publicly licensed general aviation (GA) airport serving Dublin and its environs since the early 1930s. It is located between Leixlip, County Kildare, and Lucan, Dublin 8 NM west of Dublin. Its traffic is primarily private and commercial flight training as well as business/executive travel. It is the leading general aviation airport in Ireland, and the only GA airport in the greater Dublin region, and is home to one of Ireland's two approved training organisations for ab-initio professional pilot training.
Iona National Airways was Ireland's first commercial airline. Based at Kildonan Aerodrome and Collinstown Dublin, it operated between 1931 and 1995.
Wycombe Air Park, also known as Booker Airfield, is an operational general aviation aerodrome located in Booker, Buckinghamshire, 2.4 nautical miles south-west of High Wycombe, England. The airfield celebrated its 50th year of opening on 25 April 2015. It originally opened in 1941 as RAF Booker and was primarily involved in training during World War II, remaining a military establishment until 1965.
The Airways flying club was formed in 1948 under the name of the Airways Aero Club, by employees of British European Airways (BEA) and British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). The club is operated by Airways Aero Associations Ltd, and flies out of Wycombe Air Park.
Stanley Park Aerodrome was an airfield located in the Stanley Park area of Blackpool, Lancashire, England. It was also known as Blackpool Municipal Airport, and was in use for civil and military flying from 1929 until closure of the airfield in 1947. The site is now used by Blackpool Zoo.
Lympne Airport was a military and later civil airfield, at Lympne, Kent, United Kingdom, which operated from 1916 to 1984. During the First World War RFC Lympne was originally an acceptance point for aircraft being delivered to, and returning from, France but was later designated as a First Class Landing Ground, RAF Lympne. It became a civil airfield in 1919 and saw the operation of early air mail services after the 1918 armistice. It was one of the first four airfields in the United Kingdom with customs facilities.
Bristol (Whitchurch) Airport, also known as Whitchurch Airport, was a municipal airport in Bristol, England, three miles (5 km) south of the city centre, from 1930 to 1957. It was the main airport for Bristol and the surrounding area. During World War II, it was one of the few civil airports in Europe that remained operational, enabling air connections to Lisbon and Shannon and onwards to the United States.
Royal Air Force Weston-super-Mare or more simply RAF Weston-super-Mare is a former Royal Air Force station which was located on a civilian airfield in Weston-super-Mare, Somerset, England.
Royal Air Force Pengam Moors, or more simply RAF Pengam Moors,, is a former Royal Air Force station and maintenance unit (MU), located on the Pengam Moors area of Tremorfa, situated 2 miles (3.2 km) south east of Cardiff city centre in Wales, from June 1938 to January 1946.
Ramsgate Airport was a civil airfield at Ramsgate, Kent, United Kingdom which opened in July 1935. It was briefly taken over by the Royal Air Force in the Second World War, becoming RAF Ramsgate. The airfield was then closed and obstructed to prevent its use. It reopened in 1953 and served until final closure in 1968. The site has now been redeveloped as an industrial estate.
National Air Communications was a British government organisation that directed civilian flying operations from the outbreak of World War II until April 1940.
Western Airways was an airline based in Weston-super-Mare, Somerset, England between 1932 and 1978. Before World War II, for a short period, it was the world's busiest airline. It survived WWII by using its aircraft engineering expertise.
Haldon Aerodrome was the first airfield in Devon. Established in the 1920s as a private flying field, it developed into an airport with scheduled airline service, and was used by the Navy during World War II. The airport has also been known as Teignmouth Airport, Little Haldon Airfield and, in its military days, RNAS Haldon and HMS Heron II.
Cramlington Aerodrome was a military airfield established in Northumberland during the First World War. It became a civil airfield serving the Tyneside area of north-east England and operated until 1935, when it was replaced by Woolsington Airport, now known as Newcastle International Airport.
References
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Saunders, Keith A (November 2002). "Straight to the Top". Aeroplane. 30 (11): 76–81.
1 2 3 Grey, C.G.; Bridgman, Leonard (1972). Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1938. Newton Abbot, UK: David & Charles Reprints. pp.14a, 16a. ISBN0-7153-5734-4.
↑ "Chigwell". UK Airfields Guide. Retrieved 2 March 2020.
↑ "Westley". UK Airfields Guide. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
↑ Bowyer, Michael J. F. (1990). Action Stations 1: Military Airfields of East Anglia 1939-1945 (2nded.). Wellingborough, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN1-85260-377-1.
↑ "RAF Exeter". South West Airfields Heritage Trust. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
1 2 3 4 5 Ashworth, Chris (1990). Action Stations 5: Military Airfields of the South-West (2nded.). Wellingborough, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN1-85260-374-7.
↑ "Haldon". UK Airfields Guide. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
↑ "Swalecliffe". UK Airfields Guide. Retrieved 29 February 2020.
↑ "Longman". Abandoned Forgotten and Little Known Airfields in Europe. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
↑ Smith, David J (1989). Action Stations 7: Military Airfields of Scotland, the North-East and Northern Ireland (2nded.). Wellingborough, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN1-85260-309-7.
↑ "Straight Engine Overhauls (JPG)". The Aviation Ancestry Database of British Aviation Advertisements 1909-1990. Retrieved 29 February 2020.
↑ Cobham, Sir Alan (1978). A Time to Fly. London, UK: Shepheard-Walwyn (Publishers). pp.205–214. ISBN0-85683-037-2.
1 2 Moor, Anthony John (2019). Ramsgate Municipal Airport. Fonthill Media. pp.9–11. ISBN978-1-78155-694-8.
↑ "Ramsgate Airport". The Aviation Ancestry Database of British Aviation Advertisements 1909-1990. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
Dudley, Roger; Johnson, Ted (2013). Weston-Super-Mare and the Aeroplane 1910-2010. Stroud, UK: Amberley Publishing. ISBN9781445632148.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
