Tectonics of Mars

Last updated
Topographic map of Mars showing the highland-lowland boundary marked in yellow, and the Tharsis rise outlined in red (USGS, 2014). MarsDichotomyFigure1.png
Topographic map of Mars showing the highland-lowland boundary marked in yellow, and the Tharsis rise outlined in red (USGS, 2014).

Like the Earth, the crustal properties and structure of the surface of Mars are thought to have evolved through time; in other words, as on Earth, tectonic processes have shaped the planet. However, both the ways this change has happened and the properties of the planet's lithosphere are very different when compared to the Earth. Today, Mars is believed to be largely tectonically inactive. However, observational evidence and its interpretation suggests that this was not the case further back in Mars' geological history.

Contents

At the scale of the whole planet, two large scale physiographic features are apparent on the surface. The first is that the northern hemisphere of the planet is much lower than the southern, and has been more recently resurfaced – also implying that the crustal thickness beneath the surface is distinctly bimodal. This feature is referred to as the "hemispheric dichotomy". The second is the Tharsis rise, a massive volcanic province that has had major tectonic influences both on a regional and global scale in Mars' past. On this basis, the surface of Mars is often divided into three major physiographic provinces, each with different geological and tectonic characteristics: the northern plains, the southern highlands, and the Tharsis plateau. Much tectonic study of Mars seeks to explain the processes that led to the planet's division into these three provinces, and how their differing characteristics arose. Hypotheses proposed to explain how the two primary tectonic events may have occurred are usually divided into endogenic (arising from the planet itself) and exogenic (foreign to the planet, e.g., meteorite impact) processes. [2] This distinction occurs throughout the study of tectonics on Mars.

In general, Mars lacks unambiguous evidence that terrestrial-style plate tectonics has shaped its surface. [3] However, in some places magnetic anomalies in the Martian crust that are linear in shape and of alternating polarity have been detected by orbiting satellites. Some authors have argued that these share an origin with similar stripes found on Earth's seafloor, which have been attributed to gradual production of new crust at spreading mid-ocean ridges. [4] Other authors have argued that large-scale strike-slip fault zones can be identified on the surface of Mars (e.g., in the Valles Marineris trough), which can be likened to plate-bounding transform faults on Earth such as the San Andreas and Dead Sea faults. These observations provide some indication that at least some parts of Mars may have undergone plate tectonics deep in its geological past. [5]

Physiographic provinces

Southern highlands

The southern highlands are heavily cratered and separated from the northern plains by the global dichotomy boundary. [4] Strong magnetic stripes with alternating polarity run roughly E-W in the southern hemisphere, concentric with the south pole. [6] These magnetic anomalies are found in rocks dating from the first 500 million years in Mars’ history, indicating that an intrinsic magnetic field would have ceased to exist before the early Noachian. The magnetic anomalies on Mars measure 200 km width, roughly ten times wider than those found on Earth. [6]

Northern plains

The northern plains are several kilometers lower in elevation than the southern highlands, and have a much lower crater density, indicating a younger surface age. The underlying crust is however thought to be the same age as that of the southern highlands. Unlike the southern highlands, magnetic anomalies in the northern plains are sparse and weak. [2]

Tharsis plateau

Geological map of the region around the Tharsis plateau. Extensional and compressional features - e.g., graben and wrinkle ridges - have been mapped and are visible in the image. (USGS, 2014). WrinkleRidgesAndGrabensMars.png
Geological map of the region around the Tharsis plateau. Extensional and compressional features – e.g., graben and wrinkle ridges – have been mapped and are visible in the image. (USGS, 2014).

The Tharsis plateau, which sits in the highland-lowland boundary, is an elevated region that covers roughly one quarter of the planet. Tharsis is topped by the largest shield volcanoes known in the solar system. Olympus Mons stands 24 km tall and is nearly 600 km in diameter. The adjoining Tharsis Montes consists of Ascraeus, Pavonis, and Arsia. Alba Mons, at the northern end of the Tharsis plateau, is 1500 km in diameter, and stands 6 km above the surrounding plains. In comparison, Mauna Loa is a meager 120 km wide and stands 9 km above the sea floor. [4]

The load of Tharsis has had both regional and global influences. [2] Extensional features radiating from Tharsis include graben several kilometers wide, and hundreds of meters deep, as well as enormous troughs and rifts up to 600 km wide and several kilometers deep. These graben and rifts are bounded by steeply dipping normal faults, and can extend for distances up to 4000 km. Their relief indicates that they accommodate small amounts of extension on the order of 100 m or less. It has been argued that these graben are surface expressions of deflated subsurface dikes. [7]

Circumferential to Tharsis are so-called wrinkle ridges. [2] These are compressional structures composed of linear asymmetric ridges that can be tens of kilometers wide and hundreds of kilometers long. Many aspects of these ridges appear to be consistent with terrestrial compressional features that involve surface folding overlying blind thrust faults at depth. [8] Wrinkle ridges are believed to accommodate small amounts of shortening on the order of 100 m or less. Larger ridges and scarps have also been identified on Mars. These features can be several kilometers high (as opposed to hundreds of meters high for wrinkle ridges), and are thought to represent large lithosphere-scale thrust faults. [9] Displacement ratios for these are ten times those of wrinkle ridges, with shortening estimated to be hundreds of meters to kilometers.

Approximately half of the extensional features on Mars formed during the Noachian, and have changed very little since, indicating that tectonic activity peaked early on and decreased with time. Wrinkle ridge formation both around Tharsis and in the eastern hemisphere is thought to have peaked in the Hesperian, likely due to global contraction attributed to cooling of the planet. [2]

Hemispheric dichotomy

Hypsometry

Histogram of crustal thickness versus area on Mars, adapted from Neumann et al., 2004. The hemispheric dichotomy is clear in the two peaks in the data. Crustalthicknessvsareaformars.png
Histogram of crustal thickness versus area on Mars, adapted from Neumann et al., 2004. The hemispheric dichotomy is clear in the two peaks in the data.

Gravity and topography data show that crustal thickness on Mars is resolved into two major peaks, with modal thicknesses of 32 km and 58 km in the northern and southern hemispheres, respectively. [10] Regionally, the thickest crust is associated with the Tharsis plateau, where crustal thickness in some areas exceeds 80 km, and the thinnest crust with impact basins. The major impact basins collectively make up a small histogram peak from 5 to 20 km.

The origin of the hemispheric dichotomy, which separates the northern plains from the southern highlands, has been subject to much debate. Important observations to take into account when considering its origin include the following: (1) The northern plains and southern highlands have distinct thicknesses, (2) the crust underlying the northern plains is essentially the same age as the crust of the southern highlands, and (3) the northern plains, unlike the southern highlands, contain sparse and weak magnetic anomalies. As will be discussed below, hypotheses for the formation of the dichotomy can largely be divided into endogenic and exogenic processes. [2]

Endogenic origins

A possible plate tectonic explanation for the northern lowlands. The Boreal plate is shown in yellow. Trenches are shown by toothed lines, ridges by double lines, and transform faults by single lines, modified from Sleep, 1994. SleepReconstruction.png
A possible plate tectonic explanation for the northern lowlands. The Boreal plate is shown in yellow. Trenches are shown by toothed lines, ridges by double lines, and transform faults by single lines, modified from Sleep, 1994.

Endogenic hypotheses include the possibility of a very early plate tectonic phase on Mars. [11] Such a scenario suggests that the northern hemispheric crust is a relic oceanic plate. In the preferred reconstruction, a spreading center extended north of Terra Cimmeria between Daedalia Planum and Isidis Planitia. As spreading progressed, the Boreal plate broke into the Acidalia plate with south-dipping subducting beneath Arabia Terra, and the Ulysses plate with east-dipping subducting beneath Tempe Terra and Tharsis Montes. According to this reconstruction, the northern plains would have been generated by a single spreading ridge, with Tharsis Montes qualifying as an island arc. [4] However, subsequent investigations of this model show a general lack of evidence for tectonism and volcanism in areas where such activity was initially predicted. [12]

Another endogenic process used to explain the hemispheric dichotomy is that of primary crustal fractionation. [13] This process would have been associated with the formation of the Martian core, which took place immediately after planetary accretion. Nevertheless, such an early origin of the hemispheric dichotomy is challenged by the fact that only minor magnetic anomalies have been detected in the northern plains. [2]

A model for a mantle plume origin for the hemispheric dichotomy. Single plume mantle convection generates new crust in southern hemisphere with alternating bands of normal and reversed remanent magnetism, adapted from Vita-Finzi & Fortes, 2013. Degree1Convection.png
A model for a mantle plume origin for the hemispheric dichotomy. Single plume mantle convection generates new crust in southern hemisphere with alternating bands of normal and reversed remanent magnetism, adapted from Vita-Finzi & Fortes, 2013.

Single plume mantle convection has also been invoked to explain the hemispheric dichotomy. This process would have caused substantial melting and crustal production above a single rising mantle plume in the southern hemisphere, resulting in a thickened crust. It has also been suggested that the formation of a highly viscous melt layer beneath the thickened crust in the southern hemisphere could lead to lithospheric rotation. This may have resulted in the migration of volcanically active areas toward the dichotomy boundary, and the subsequent placement and formation of the Tharsis plateau. The single plume hypothesis is also used to explain the presence of magnetic anomalies in the southern hemisphere, and the lack thereof in the northern hemisphere. [14]

Exogenic origins

Exogenic hypotheses involve one or more large impacts as being responsible for the lowering of the northern plains. Although a multiple-impact origin has been proposed, [15] it would have required an improbable preferential bombardment of the northern hemisphere. [2] It is also unlikely that multiple impacts would have been able to strip ejecta from the northern hemisphere, and uniformly strip the crust to a relatively consistent depth of 3 km.

Mapping of the northern plains and the dichotomy boundary shows that the crustal dichotomy is elliptical in shape. [16] This suggests that formation of the northern plains was caused by a single oblique mega-impact. This hypothesis is in agreement with numerical models of impacts in the 30-60° range, which are shown to produce elliptical boundary basins similar to the structure identified on Mars. [2] Demagnetization resulting from the high heat associated with such an impact can also serve to explain the apparent lack of magnetic anomalies in the northern plains. It also explains the younger surface age of the northern plains, as determined by significantly lesser crater density. Overall, this hypothesis appears to fare better than others that have been proposed.

Tectonic implications of magnetic anomalies

Map of crustal magnetic anomaly distribution on Mars, courtesy of NASA, 2005. Mars Crustal Magnetism MGS.png
Map of crustal magnetic anomaly distribution on Mars, courtesy of NASA, 2005.

The southern highlands of Mars display zones of intense crustal magnetization. The magnetic anomalies are weak or absent in the vicinity of large impact basins, the northern plains, and in volcanic regions, indicating that magnetization in these areas have been erased by thermal events. The presence of magnetic anomalies on Mars suggests that the planet maintained an intrinsic magnetic field early on in its history. [2] The anomalies are linear in shape and of alternating polarity, which some authors have interpreted as a sequence of reversals and a process akin to seafloor spreading. [4] The stripes are ten times wider than those found on Earth, indicating faster spreading or slower reversal rates. Although no spreading center has been identified, a map of the magnetic anomalies on Mars reveals that the lineations are concentric to the south pole.

Mantle plume origin

A process similar to seafloor spreading has been proposed to explain the presence of the concentric stripes around the Martian south pole. The process is that of a single large mantle plume rising in one hemisphere and downwelling in the opposite hemisphere. In such a process, new crust produced would be emplaced in concentric circles spreading radially from a single upwelling point, consistent with the pattern observed on Mars. This process has also been invoked to help explain the Martian hemispheric dichotomy. [14]

Dike intrusion origin

An alternative hypothesis claims that the magnetic anomalies on Mars are the result of successive dike intrusions due to lithospheric extension. As each dike intrusion cools, it would acquire thermoremanent magnetization from the planet's magnetic field. Successive dikes would be magnetized in the same direction, until the magnetic field reverses its polarity, resulting in the subsequent intrusions recording the opposite direction. These periodic reversals would require that the dike intrusions migrate over time. [17]

Accretion of terranes

Another study assumes a process of crustal convergence instead of generation, arguing that the magnetic lineations on Mars formed at a convergent plate margin through collision and accretion of terranes. This hypothesis suggests that the magnetic lineations on Mars are analogous to the banded magnetic anomalies in the North American Cordillera on Earth. These terrestrial anomalies are of similar geometry and size as those detected on Mars, with widths of 100–200 km. [18]

Tectonic implications of Valles Marineris

Satellite imagery of the Valles Marineris trough system, showing an interpreted large scale strike-slip fault system running along its length. Relative fault motion is suggested in part by the offset rim of an old impact basin. Image modified from NASA/MOLA Science Team. VallesMarinerisOffsetImpactBasin.png
Satellite imagery of the Valles Marineris trough system, showing an interpreted large scale strike-slip fault system running along its length. Relative fault motion is suggested in part by the offset rim of an old impact basin. Image modified from NASA/MOLA Science Team.

Recent research claims to have found the first strong evidence for a plate tectonic boundary on Mars. [5] The discovery refers to a large-scale (>2000 km in length and >150 km in slip) and quite narrow (<50 km wide) strike-slip fault zone in the Valles Marineris trough system, referred to as the Ius-Melas-Coprates fault zone (Fig. 7). The Valles Marineris trough system, which is over 4000 km long, 600 km wide, and up to 7 km deep, would, if located on Earth, extend all the way across North America. [4]

The study indicates that the Ius-Melas-Coprates fault zone is a left-slip transtensional system similar to that of the Dead Sea fault zone on Earth. [5] The magnitude of displacement across the fault zone is estimated to be 150–160 km, as indicated by the offset rim of an old impact basin. If normalizing the magnitude of the slip to the surface area of the planet, the Ius-Melas-Coprates fault zone has a displacement value significantly larger than that of the Dead Sea fault, and slightly larger than that of the San Andreas fault. The lack of significant deformation on both sides of the Ius-Melas-Coprates fault zone over a distance of 500 km suggests that the regions bounded by the fault behave as rigid blocks. This evidence essentially points to a large strike-slip system at a plate boundary, in terrestrial terms known as a transform fault. [5]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Valles Marineris</span> Valleys on Mars

Valles Marineris is a system of canyons that runs along the Martian surface east of the Tharsis region. At more than 4,000 km (2,500 mi) long, 200 km (120 mi) wide and up to 7 km (23,000 ft) deep, Valles Marineris is one of the largest canyons of the Solar System, surpassed in length only by the rift valleys of the mid-ocean ridge system of Earth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tharsis</span> Volcanic plateau on Mars

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Areography</span> Delineation and characterization of Martian regions

Areography, also known as the geography of Mars, is a subfield of planetary science that entails the delineation and characterization of regions on Mars. Areography is mainly focused on what is called physical geography on Earth; that is the distribution of physical features across Mars and their cartographic representations. In April 2023, The New York Times reported an updated global map of Mars based on images from the Hope spacecraft. A related, but much more detailed, global Mars map was released by NASA on 16 April 2023.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pavonis Mons</span> Martian volcano

Pavonis Mons is a large shield volcano located in the Tharsis region of the planet Mars. It is the middle member of a chain of three volcanic mountains that straddle the Martian equator between longitudes 235°E and 259°E. The volcano was discovered by the Mariner 9 spacecraft in 1971, and was originally called Middle Spot. Its name formally became Pavonis Mons in 1973. The equatorial location of its peak and its height make it the ideal terminus for a space elevator, and it has often been proposed as a space elevator location, especially in science fiction. It is also an ideal location for a Sky Ramp.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alba Mons</span> Martian volcano

Alba Mons is a volcano located in the northern Tharsis region of the planet Mars. It is the biggest volcano on Mars in terms of surface area, with volcanic flow fields that extend for at least 1,350 km (840 mi) from its summit. Although the volcano has a span comparable to that of the United States, it reaches an elevation of only 6.8 km (22,000 ft) at its highest point. This is about one-third the height of Olympus Mons, the tallest volcano on the planet. The flanks of Alba Mons have very gentle slopes. The average slope along the volcano's northern flank is 0.5°, which is over five times lower than the slopes on the other large Tharsis volcanoes. In broad profile, Alba Mons resembles a vast but barely raised welt on the planet's surface. It is a unique volcanic structure with no counterpart on Earth or elsewhere on Mars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">North Polar Basin (Mars)</span> Large basin in the northern hemisphere of Mars

The North Polar Basin, more commonly known as the Borealis Basin, is a large basin in the northern hemisphere of Mars that covers 40% of the planet. Some scientists have postulated that the basin formed during the impact of a single, large body roughly 2% of the mass of Mars, having a diameter of about 1,900 km early in the history of Mars, around 4.5 billion years ago. However, the basin is not currently recognized as an impact basin by the IAU. The basin is one of the flattest areas in the Solar System, and has an elliptical shape.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tempe Terra</span> Terra on Mars

Tempe Terra is a heavily cratered highland region in the northern hemisphere of the planet Mars. Located at the northeastern edge of the Tharsis volcanic province, Tempe Terra is notable for its high degree of crustal fracturing and deformation. The region also contains many small shield volcanoes, lava flows, and other volcanic structures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geology of Mars</span> Scientific study of the surface, crust, and interior of the planet Mars

The geology of Mars is the scientific study of the surface, crust, and interior of the planet Mars. It emphasizes the composition, structure, history, and physical processes that shape the planet. It is analogous to the field of terrestrial geology. In planetary science, the term geology is used in its broadest sense to mean the study of the solid parts of planets and moons. The term incorporates aspects of geophysics, geochemistry, mineralogy, geodesy, and cartography. A neologism, areology, from the Greek word Arēs (Mars), sometimes appears as a synonym for Mars's geology in the popular media and works of science fiction. The term areology is also used by the Areological Society.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Martian dichotomy</span> Geomorphological feature of Mars

The most conspicuous feature of Mars is a sharp contrast, known as the Martian dichotomy, between the Southern and the Northern hemispheres. The two hemispheres' geography differ in elevation by 1 to 3 km. The average thickness of the Martian crust is 45 km, with 32 km in the northern lowlands region, and 58 km in the southern highlands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanism on Mars</span> Overview of volcanism in the geological history of Mars

Volcanic activity, or volcanism, has played a significant role in the geologic evolution of Mars. Scientists have known since the Mariner 9 mission in 1972 that volcanic features cover large portions of the Martian surface. These features include extensive lava flows, vast lava plains, and the largest known volcanoes in the Solar System. Martian volcanic features range in age from Noachian to late Amazonian, indicating that the planet has been volcanically active throughout its history, and some speculate it probably still is so today. Both Earth and Mars are large, differentiated planets built from similar chondritic materials. Many of the same magmatic processes that occur on Earth also occurred on Mars, and both planets are similar enough compositionally that the same names can be applied to their igneous rocks and minerals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tharsis quadrangle</span> Map of Mars

The Tharsis quadrangle is one of a series of 30 quadrangle maps of Mars used by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Astrogeology Research Program. The Tharsis quadrangle is also referred to as MC-9 . The name Tharsis refers to a land mentioned in the Bible. It may be at the location of the old town of Tartessus at the mouth of Guadalquivir.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phaethontis quadrangle</span> Map of Mars

The Phaethontis quadrangle is one of a series of 30 quadrangle maps of Mars used by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Astrogeology Research Program. The Phaethontis quadrangle is also referred to as MC-24.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ceraunius Fossae</span> Set of fractures in the northern Tharsis region of Mars

The Ceraunius Fossae are a set of fractures in the northern Tharsis region of Mars. They lie directly south of the large volcano Alba Mons and consist of numerous parallel faults and tension cracks that deform the ancient highland crust. In places, younger lava flows cover the fractured terrain, dividing it into several large patches or islands. They are found in the Tharsis quadrangle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phlegra Montes</span> System of eroded massifs and knobbly terrain on Mars

The Phlegra Montes are a system of eroded Hesperian–Noachian-aged massifs and knobby terrain in the mid-latitudes of the northern lowlands of Mars, extending northwards from the Elysium Rise towards Vastitas Borealis for nearly 1,400 km (870 mi). The mountain ranges separate the large plains provinces of Utopia Planitia (west) and Amazonis Planitia (east), and were named in the 1970s after a classical albedo feature. The massif terrains are flanked by numerous parallel wrinkle ridges known as the Phlegra Dorsa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Noachian</span> Geological system and early time period of Mars

The Noachian is a geologic system and early time period on the planet Mars characterized by high rates of meteorite and asteroid impacts and the possible presence of abundant surface water. The absolute age of the Noachian period is uncertain but probably corresponds to the lunar Pre-Nectarian to Early Imbrian periods of 4100 to 3700 million years ago, during the interval known as the Late Heavy Bombardment. Many of the large impact basins on the Moon and Mars formed at this time. The Noachian Period is roughly equivalent to the Earth's Hadean and early Archean eons when the first life forms likely arose.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LARLE crater</span> Class of Martian impact craters

A low-aspect-ratio layered ejecta crater is a class of impact crater found on the planet Mars. This class of impact craters was discovered by Northern Arizona University scientist Professor Nadine Barlow and Dr. Joseph Boyce from the University of Hawaii in October 2013. Barlow described this class of craters as having a "thin-layered outer deposit" surpassing "the typical range of ejecta". "The combination helps vaporize the materials and create a base flow surge. The low aspect ratio refers to how thin the deposits are relative to the area they cover", Barlow said. The scientists used data from continuing reconnaissance of Mars using the old Mars Odyssey orbiter and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. They discovered 139 LARLE craters ranging in diameter from 1.0 to 12.2 km, with 97% of the LARLE craters found poleward of 35N and 40S. The remaining 3% mainly traced in the equatorial Medusae Fossae Formation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thaumasia Planum</span>

The Thaumasia Planum of Mars lies south of Melas Chasmata and Coprates Chasmata. It is in the Coprates quadrangle. Its center is located at 21.66 S and 294.78 E. It was named after a classical albedo feature. The name was approved in 2006. Some forms on its surface are evidence of a flow of lava or water the Melas Chasma. Many wrinkle ridges and grabens are visible. One set of grabens, called Nia Fossae, seem to follow the curve of Melas Chasmata which lies just to the north.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gravity of Mars</span> Gravitational force exerted by the planet Mars

The gravity of Mars is a natural phenomenon, due to the law of gravity, or gravitation, by which all things with mass around the planet Mars are brought towards it. It is weaker than Earth's gravity due to the planet's smaller mass. The average gravitational acceleration on Mars is 3.72076 ms−2 and it varies. In general, topography-controlled isostasy drives the short wavelength free-air gravity anomalies. At the same time, convective flow and finite strength of the mantle lead to long-wavelength planetary-scale free-air gravity anomalies over the entire planet. Variation in crustal thickness, magmatic and volcanic activities, impact-induced Moho-uplift, seasonal variation of polar ice caps, atmospheric mass variation and variation of porosity of the crust could also correlate to the lateral variations. Over the years models consisting of an increasing but limited number of spherical harmonics have been produced. Maps produced have included free-air gravity anomaly, Bouguer gravity anomaly, and crustal thickness. In some areas of Mars there is a correlation between gravity anomalies and topography. Given the known topography, higher resolution gravity field can be inferred. Tidal deformation of Mars by the Sun or Phobos can be measured by its gravity. This reveals how stiff the interior is, and shows that the core is partially liquid. The study of surface gravity of Mars can therefore yield information about different features and provide beneficial information for future landings.

The Thaumasia Plateau is a vast sloping volcanic plain in the western hemisphere of Mars, and is the most extensive component of the Tharsis Rise by area. Syria Planum, Solis Planum, Sinai Planum, and Thaumasia Planum are the constituent sectors of the plateau, which sits between 8 km and 4 km above the surrounding southern highlands. It is bounded by vestigial basement terrains that predate the formation of Tharsis. This area has been proposed to be a drainage basin that sourced the floodwaters forming the outflow channels surrounding Chryse Planitia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Magnetic field of Mars</span>

The magnetic field of Mars is the magnetic field generated from Mars' interior. Today, Mars does not have a global magnetic field. However, Mars did power an early dynamo that produced a strong magnetic field 4 billion years ago, comparable to Earth's present surface field. After the early dynamo ceased, a weak late dynamo was reactivated ~3.8 billion years ago. The distribution of Martian crustal magnetization is similar to the Martian dichotomy. Whereas the Martian northern lowlands are largely unmagnetized, the southern hemisphere possesses strong remanent magnetization, showing alternating stripes. Our understanding of the evolution of the magnetic field of Mars is based on the combination of satellite measurements and Martian ground-based magnetic data.

References

  1. 1 2 Tanaka, K. L.; Skinner, J. A.; Dohm, J. M.; Irwin III, R.P; Kolb, E. J.; Fortezzo, C. M.; Platz, T.; Michael, G. G.; Hare, T. M. (2014). "Geologic map of Mars". Scientific Investigations Map. USGS. doi:10.3133/sim3292.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Golombek, M. P.; Phillips, R. J. (2010). "Mars Tectonics". In Watters, T. R.; Schultz, R. A. (eds.). Planetary Tectonics. pp. 183–232. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511691645.006. ISBN   9780511691645.
  3. ↑ Carr, Michael H. (2006). The surface of Mars. p. 16. ISBN   0-521-87201-4.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Vita-Finzi, C.; Fortes, A. D. (2013). Planetary Geology: An Introduction (2 ed.). Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Yin, A. (2012). "Structural Analysis of the Valles Marineris Fault Zone: Possible Evidence for Large-scale Strike-slip Faulting on Mars". Lithosphere. 4 (4): 286–330. Bibcode:2012Lsphe...4..286Y. doi: 10.1130/L192.1 .
  6. 1 2 Connerney, J. E.; Acuña, M. H.; Wasilewski, P. J.; Ness, N. F.; Reme, H.; Mazelle, C.; Vignes, D.; Lin, R. P.; Mitchell, D. L.; Cloutier, P. A. (1999). "Magnetic Lineations in the Ancient Crust of Mars". Science. 284 (5415): 794–798. Bibcode:1999Sci...284..794C. doi:10.1126/science.284.5415.794. PMID   10221909.
  7. ↑ Wilson, L.; Head III, J. W. (2002). "Tharsis-Radial Graben Systems as the Surface Manifestation of Plume-Related Dike Intrusion Complexes: Models and Implications" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 107 (E8): 5057–5080. Bibcode:2002JGRE..107.5057W. doi:10.1029/2001JE001593.
  8. ↑ Schultz, R. A. (2000). "Localization of Bedding Plane Slip and Backthrust Faults Above Blind Thrust Faults: Keys to Wrinkle Ridge Structure". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 105 (E5): 12035–12052. Bibcode:2000JGR...10512035S. doi: 10.1029/1999JE001212 .
  9. ↑ Tanaka, K. L.; Schultz, R. A. (1994). "Lithospheric-Scale Buckling and Thrust Structures on Mars: The Coprates Rise and South Tharsis Ridge Belt". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 99 (E4): 8371–8385. Bibcode:1994JGR....99.8371S. doi:10.1029/94JE00277.
  10. 1 2 Neumann, G. A.; Zuber, M. T.; Wieczorek, M. A.; McGovern, P. J.; Lemoine, F. G.; Smith, D. E. (2004). "Crustal Structure of Mars from Gravity and Topography" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 109 (E8): E08002–E08017. Bibcode:2004JGRE..109.8002N. doi: 10.1029/2004JE002262 .
  11. 1 2 Sleep, N. H. (1994). "Martian Plate Tectonics" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 99 (E3): 5639–5655. Bibcode:1994JGR....99.5639S. doi:10.1029/94JE00216.
  12. ↑ Pruis, M. J.; Tanaka, K. L. (1995). "The Martian northern plains did not result from plate tectonics" (PDF). Lunar and Planetary Institute: 1147–1148.
  13. ↑ Halliday, A. N.; Lee, Der-Chuen (1997). "Core Formation on Mars and Differentiated Asteroids". Science. 388 (6645): 854–857. doi:10.1038/42206. hdl: 2027.42/62720 . S2CID   205030294.
  14. 1 2 Citron, R. J.; Zhong, S. J. (2012). "Constraints on the Formation of the Martian Crustal Dichotomy from Remnant Crustal Magnetism". Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors. 212: 55–63. Bibcode:2012PEPI..212...55C. doi:10.1016/j.pepi.2012.09.008.
  15. ↑ Frey, H.; Schultz, R. A. (1988). "Large Impact Basins and the Mega-Impact Origin for the Crustal Dichotomy on Mars". Geophysical Research Letters. 15 (3): 229–232. Bibcode:1988GeoRL..15..229F. doi:10.1029/GL015i003p00229.
  16. ↑ Andrews-Hanna, J.C.; Banerdt, W.B.; Zuber, M.T. (2008). "The Borealis basin and the origin of the martian crustal dichotomy". Nature. 453 (7199): 1212–1215. Bibcode:2008Natur.453.1212A. doi:10.1038/nature07011. PMID   18580944. S2CID   1981671.
  17. ↑ Nimmo, F. (2000). "Dike Intrusion as a Possible Cause of Linear Martian Magnetic Anomalies". Geology. 28 (5): 391–394. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2000)028<0391:DIAAPC>2.3.CO;2.
  18. ↑ Fairén, A.; Ruiz, J.; Anguita, F. (2002). "An Origin for the Linear Magnetic Anomalies on Mars through Accretion of Terranes: Implications for Dynamo Timing". Icarus. 160 (1): 220–223. Bibcode:2002Icar..160..220F. doi:10.1006/icar.2002.6942.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.