Temple of Bel, Dura-Europos

Last updated
Temple of Bel DuraEuropos-TempleOfBel.jpg
Temple of Bel
Pearson's drawing of the isometric reconstruction of Temple of Bel in the final period Temple of Bel, plans of 3 periods and isometric reconstruction of final period by Pearson.jpg
Pearson's drawing of the isometric reconstruction of Temple of Bel in the final period

The Temple of Bel, also known as the Temple of the Palmyrene gods, was located in Dura Europos, an ancient city on the Euphrates, in modern Syria. The temple was established in the first century BC and is celebrated primarily for its wall paintings. Despite the modern names of the structure, it is uncertain which gods were worshipped in the structure. Under Roman rule, the temple was dedicated to the Emperor Alexander Severus. In that period, the temple was located within the military camp of the XXth Palmyrene cohort.

Contents

Discovery

Dura-Europos general excavations plan, Temple of the Palmyrene gods is marked as J9 Dura-Europos plan.png
Dura-Europos general excavations plan, Temple of the Palmyrene gods is marked as J9

The temple's paintings were discovered in 1920 by M. C. Murphy. Photos of the paintings reached James Henry Breasted, who studied both the paintings and the temple and would publish a monograph about them in 1924. [1] Before Murphy's discovery, the site was unknown to Westerners. Its identification with the town of Dura Europos, as known from ancient sources, only came later. The discovery of wall paintings in the temple sparked interest and the find was even reported in The New York Times , in an article from 10 June 1922. This article noted that the paintings represented a transitional stage between 'decadent Oriental Hellenistic art' and Byzantine art. [2] The Temple of Bel was one of the first structures discovered at Dura in 1920. It was fully excavated but never published. [3] In the Parthian times the Temple was likely dedicated to Zeus, [4] as no evidence indicates Palmyrene worship during the Parthian period in which it was founded. [5] Based on the unpublished iconography that Ted Kaizer analyzed, he argues that the deity who reigned under "Zeus" was Bel. [6]

Description

The temple is located in the northwest of the city, abutting the city wall. The northern and western walls of the temple are formed by the city wall. At least three construction phases can be discerned. The holy of holies was located in the west. The original construction phase consisted of a wide room, to which a vestibule was added in the second building phase. In front of the holy of holies was a courtyard, surrounded by various rooms, whose function is not yet clear. The main entrance to the temple was located on the east side of sanctuary, roughly opposite the holy of holies. [7] During the Syrian civil war in the years 2011 to 2014, however, the condition that the Franco-American expedition found the temple no longer remains due to the looting that destroyed most of its remains by the Islamic state. [8]

Religious origins

The Temple of Bēl at Dura is known to be a center of religious life, where the god Iarhibol was worshiped. The origin of the god's name, Bel, comes from the influence of the cult of Bel-Marduk in Palmyra in 213 BC. [9] Bel was known to be a chief god in pre-hellenistic times, often worshiped alongside Iarhibol and Aglibol. [10]

A base relief dedicated to Bel. Bel (to the far right), Baalshamin (to the far left), Iarhibol and Aglibol between them. Like Bel, Baalshamin was another supreme god of worship in ancient Syria. Relief Bel Baalshamin Yarhibol Aglibol MBA Lyon 1992-13.jpg
A base relief dedicated to Bel. Bel (to the far right), Baalshamin (to the far left), Iarhibol and Aglibol between them. Like Bel, Baalshamin was another supreme god of worship in ancient Syria.

Iarhibol

Iarhibol is known as an Aramean god who was worshiped in ancient Palmyra. Iarhibol has appeared in several reliefs that depict him as the sun god, associated with the triad of Bel, standing alongside Aglibol to his right. Iarhibol never appears in busts or reliefs without these gods that create the symbolic Sun-Moon-Earth trinity. [11] Thus, Iarhibol is known as the sun-god while Aglibol is known as the moon-god. Iarhibol is also associated with different temples in Dura. In the Temple of the Gadde, there is an inscription on a stele that gives Iarhibol the title "the good god, Bethyl of the Spring", which portrays him as the custodian of the Spring. [12] However, literal translations of Iarhibol's name say that he was "the moon of Bel", which shows a connection with the Canaanite moon god Jarih. [13]

Altar's inscription

Photograph of the Altar to Iarhibol taken in 1928-1929 Iarhibol altar from the Temple of Bel.jpg
Photograph of the Altar to Iarhibol taken in 1928-1929

The Altar to Iarhibol was found at the entrance of the Temple of Bel by the Yale-French excavation team in the years of 1928-1929. The inscription on this Altar was inscribed in Greek by a Roman Commander, Skeibonios Moukianos, which reads: "To the god Iarhibol. Skeibonios Moukianos, the tribune, made this on command (of the god)." However, literal translations of the Greek suggest that Skeibonios is a misspelling for the Latin name Scribonius and that the transcription for Moukianos reads as Mucianus based on the evidence from the military parchments found from the excavation site. [5] The inscription on the altar tells that a Latin-named Commander of a Roman army wrote his inscription to Iarhibol in Greek. Scribonius Moucianus, a Greek descendant who held a position of power in a Roman army. The inscription likely dates to around 165–256 CE. However, another translation offered for the text on the altar is as follows: "[For] the god Iarhibol, Scribonius Moucianus, chiliarch, made this as commanded." Thus, a Latin-named dedicant, who holds a Greek-titled office in the Roman army, records his offering to the Palmyrene god Yarhibol in Greek." [14] The fact that the term Chiliarch refers to the commander in an Ancient Macedonian army raises more questions about who the inhabitants of the Temple might have been.

Wall paintings

Julius Terentius Performing a Sacrifice. Commissioned by the Roman tribune at Dura-Europos, Julius Terentius (depicted and identified here by Latin inscription), this painting mixes Greek, Roman, and Palmyrene elements, perhaps as a gesture of diplomacy. Performing an official sacrifice in front of a military standard, Terentius stands with his men. Although in Roman military attire, these soldiers are Palmyrenes; one of them (Themes, son of Mokimos) is identified in Greek as a priest. The sacrifice, a burning of incense, was an act of worship common in both Near Eastern and Roman sanctuaries. Here it takes place in the presence of divinities, all nimbate. The Tychai of Dura and Palmyra are shown in Hellenistic style incorporating some Near Eastern features. Three male statues of deities enigmatically combine Roman cuirasses and Palmyrene attributes (such as the peaked helmet). Their lack of identifying labels creates ambiguity as to whether they represent Palmyrene gods or deified Roman emperors. This may have been done intentionally, to appeal to viewers of different backgrounds. Julius Terentius Performing a Sacrifice (Dura Europos).jpg
Julius Terentius Performing a Sacrifice. Commissioned by the Roman tribune at Dura-Europos, Julius Terentius (depicted and identified here by Latin inscription), this painting mixes Greek, Roman, and Palmyrene elements, perhaps as a gesture of diplomacy. Performing an official sacrifice in front of a military standard, Terentius stands with his men. Although in Roman military attire, these soldiers are Palmyrenes; one of them (Themes, son of Mokimos) is identified in Greek as a priest. The sacrifice, a burning of incense, was an act of worship common in both Near Eastern and Roman sanctuaries. Here it takes place in the presence of divinities, all nimbate. The Tychai of Dura and Palmyra are shown in Hellenistic style incorporating some Near Eastern features. Three male statues of deities enigmatically combine Roman cuirasses and Palmyrene attributes (such as the peaked helmet). Their lack of identifying labels creates ambiguity as to whether they represent Palmyrene gods or deified Roman emperors. This may have been done intentionally, to appeal to viewers of different backgrounds.

The temple is best known in art historical scholarship because of its wall paintings. At Dura-Europos, relatively well-preserved wall paintings survived, many of them dating from the period when the city was under Roman rule (AD 164-256). The paintings in the holy of holies, known as the Sacrifice of Konon, however, date to the late first century BC or early first century AD, when the city was under Parthian rule. At the time of their discovery, they were very well-preserved and the colours remained very vivid. The paintings were removed from the wall and are now found in the National Museum of Damascus. A typical feature of these images is the stark frontal focus of the figures. The colours were originally very bright. The faces were particularly well-executed by the artists and appear to be portraits of specific individuals. [16] The figures are identified by small inscriptions next to them. From these it is learnt that the main figure is Konon and the other figures are several generations of his descendants. [17]

The sacrifice of Konon, wall painting in the Temple of Bel. Dura Europos fresco Sacrifice of Conon.jpg
The sacrifice of Konon, wall painting in the Temple of Bel.

Another important wall painting is the Sacrifice of Julius Terentius, which was originally on the north wall of the pronaos, but today resides in the Yale University Art Gallery. [18] This painting dates to the period of Roman rule and shows Julius Terentius, who was the Tribune of the Roman garrison in Dura-Europos. Julius Terentius is located in the centre of the scene. In front of him, there is an altar and statues of three deities. These deities were initially identified with the Palmyrene gods, Yarhibol, Aglibol, and Malakbel, hence one of the modern English names associated with the temple. More recent research has revealed the statues of the Roman emperor, indicating that this was a centre of Imperial cult. [19] Below the statues, there are two female deities. These are depictions of Tyche (fortune). The inscription refers to them as the Tyche of Dura and the Tyche of Palmyra. [20]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bel (mythology)</span> Title applied to various gods of ancient Mesopotamian religions

Bêl is a title signifying 'lord' or 'master' applied to various gods in the Mesopotamian religion of Akkad, Assyria, and Babylonia. The feminine form is Bêlit in Akkadian. Bel is represented in Greek as Belos and in Latin as Belus. Belit appears in Greek form as Beltis (Βελτις). Linguistically, Bel is an East Semitic form cognate with the Northwest Semitic Baal with the same meaning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atargatis</span> Ancient goddess of Northern Syria

Atargatis was the chief goddess of northern Syria in Classical antiquity. Primarily she was a fertility goddess, but, as the baalat ("mistress") of her city and people she was also responsible for their protection and well-being. Her chief sanctuary was at Hierapolis, modern Manbij, northeast of Aleppo, Syria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dura-Europos</span> Ancient Syrian city

Dura-Europos was a Hellenistic, Parthian, and Roman border city built on an escarpment 90 metres above the southwestern bank of the Euphrates river. It is located near the village of Salhiyé, in present-day Syria. Dura-Europos was founded around 300 BC by Seleucus I Nicator, who founded the Seleucid Empire as one of the Diadochi of Alexander the Great. In 113 BC, Parthians conquered the city, and held it, with one brief Roman intermission, until 165 AD. Under Parthian rule, it became an important provincial administrative centre. The Romans decisively captured Dura-Europos in 165 AD and greatly enlarged it as their easternmost stronghold in Mesopotamia, until it was captured by the Sasanian Empire after a siege in 256–257 AD. Its population was deported, and the abandoned city eventually became covered by sand and mud and disappeared from sight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aglibol</span> Syrian deity of the Moon

Aglibol is a god from Palmyra, originating from a north Syrian immigrant community. He is a moon god who was worshiped in the ancient Syrian city of Palmyra as part of a triad alongside Bel and Yarhibol, and associated with the sun god Malakbel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baalshamin</span>

Baalshamin, also called Baal Shamem and Baal Shamaim, was a Northwest Semitic god and a title applied to different gods at different places or times in ancient Middle Eastern inscriptions, especially in Canaan/Phoenicia and Syria. The title was most often applied to Hadad, who is also often titled just Ba‘al. Baalshamin was one of the two supreme gods and the sky god of pre-Islamic Palmyra in ancient Syria. There his attributes were the eagle and the lightning bolt, and he perhaps formed a triad with the lunar god Aglibol and the sun god Malakbel. The title was also applied to Zeus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malakbel</span> Arabian deity

Malakbel was a sun god worshipped in the ancient Syrian city of Palmyra, frequently associated and worshipped with the moon god Aglibol as a party of a trinity involving the sky god Baalshamin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Temple of Bel</span> Ruins of an ancient temple in Palmyra, Syria

The Temple of Bel, sometimes also referred to as the "Temple of Baal", was an ancient temple located in Palmyra, Syria. The temple, consecrated to the Mesopotamian god Bel, worshipped at Palmyra in triad with the lunar god Aglibol and the sun god Yarhibol, formed the center of religious life in Palmyra and was dedicated in AD 32. The temple would have been closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire in a campaign against the temples of the East made by Maternus Cynegius, Praetorian Prefect of Oriens, between 25 May 385 to 19 March 388. Its ruins were considered among the best preserved at Palmyra, until they were further destroyed by the Islamic State in August 2015. The arched main entrance into the temple is still intact, as well as its exterior walls and fortified gate.

Abgal was a pre-Islamic Arabian god, whose worship is attested by inscriptions dating to the Palmyrene Empire – he is thought to have been primarily worshipped by nomads.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parthian art</span> Art during the Parthian Empire

Parthian art was Iranian art made during the Parthian Empire from 247 BC to 224 AD, based in the Near East. It has a mixture of Persian and Hellenistic influences. For some time after the period of the Parthian Empire, art in its styles continued for some time. A typical feature of Parthian art is the frontality of the people shown. Even in narrative representations, the actors do not look at the object of their action, but at the viewer. These are features that anticipate the art of medieval Europe and Byzantium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yarhibol</span> Aramean god

Yarhibol or Iarhibol is an Aramean god who was worshiped mainly in ancient Palmyra, a city in central Syria. He was depicted with a solar nimbus and styled "lord of the spring". He normally appears alongside Bel, who was a co-supreme god of Palmyra, and Aglibol, one of the other top Palmyrene gods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Palmyra</span> Ancient city in central Syria

Palmyra is an ancient city in the eastern part of the Levant, now in the center of modern Syria. Archaeological finds date back to the Neolithic period, and documents first mention the city in the early second millennium BC. Palmyra changed hands on a number of occasions between different empires before becoming a subject of the Roman Empire in the first century AD.

The Bene Komare were a Palmyrene tribe who were attested as one of the main four tribes of Palmyra.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Temple of the Gadde</span>

The Temple of the Gadde is a temple in the modern-day Syrian city of Dura-Europos, located near the agora. It contained reliefs dedicated to the tutelary deities of Dura-Europos and the nearby city of Palmyra, after whom the temple was named by its excavators. The temple was excavated between 1934 and January 1936 by the French/American expedition of Yale University, led by Michael Rostovtzeff.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dolicheneum</span>

The so-called Dolicheneum is a temple in Dura Europos in the east of today's Syria, where Jupiter Dolichenus and god called Zeus Helios Mithras Turmasgade may have been worshiped. The remains of the temple were excavated in 1935/36, but results were never fully published.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Necropolis Temple of Dura-Europos</span>

The so-called necropolis temple was in the north of Dura-Europos, outside the city walls, about 150 m northwest of the main gate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mithraeum of Dura-Europos</span> Mithraic temple excavated in Syria

The Mithraeum of Dura Europos was found during excavations in the city in 1934. It is considered to be one of the best-preserved and best-documented cult buildings of Mithraism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Temple of Aphlad</span>

The Temple of Aphlad was an ancient temple located in the southwestern corner of Dura Europos, and dedicated to the god Aphlad. Aphlad was originally a Semitic Mesopotamian god from the city of Anath, and presence of his cult in Dura is revealing of its religious and cultural diversity. The temple itself consists of an open courtyard with multiple scattered rooms and altars, similar to the Temple of Bel, which was located in an analogous position in the northwestern corner of Dura.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Temple of Atargatis</span>

The Temple of Atargatis in Dura-Europos was one of the main temples of the city. The temple was built in the first century AD, when the city was under Parthian rule, and excavated in 1928–1929 under the direction of Maurice Pillet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Temple of Zeus Megistos</span> Temple located in block C4 at Dura-Europos

The Temple of Zeus Megistos is in Dura-Europos in the east of the city in a part of the city that is modernly referred to as the Acropolis. It was one of the main temples of the city, the oldest construction phases of which perhaps go back to the time when the city was under Greek rule. The temple is not well preserved and the results of its excavations are not fully published. Several times the temple has been the target of excavations. The first excavations took place in 1928–37. The ceramics have hardly been recorded, which makes dating the older layers more difficult. The excavators presented some reconstructions of the oldest Greek temple. In particular, the more recent excavations from 1992 and 2002 raise doubts about older reconstructions and interpretations.

References

  1. ↑ James Henry Breasted: Oriental Forerunners of Byzantine Painting: First-Century Wall Paintings from the Fortress of Dura on the Middle Euphrates. (= University of Chicago Oriental Institute Publications. Band 1). Chicago 1924, OCLC   886650055. (online)
  2. ↑ J. A. Baird: Dura Europos. Bloomsbury Academic, London 2018, ISBN   978-1-4725-3087-5, pp. 3–5.
  3. ↑ James, Simon (2019). The Roman military base at Dura-Europos. Oxford University Press. p. 62.
  4. ↑ Welles, C.B. The gods of Dura-Europos. p. 63.
  5. 1 2 3 Dirven, Lucinda (1999). The Palmyrenes of Dura Europos. pp. 327–8.
  6. ↑ Kaizer, Ted. "Revisiting the "Temple of Bêl" at Dura Europos". In Steinsapir, Ann Irvine; Heyn, Laura K. (eds.). Icon, Cult, and Context : Sacred Spaces and Objects in the Classical World. p. 38.
  7. ↑ J. A. Baird: Dura Europos. 2018, p. 101.
  8. ↑ Alten, Ai-Linh. Assessing Wildfire Damage from High Resolution Satellite Imagery Using Classification Algorithms (Thesis). San Jose State University Library.
  9. ↑ Teixidor, Javier (1979). The Pantheon of Palmyra. Brill Archive. ISBN   9004059873.
  10. ↑ Rostovtzeff, M. I. (1932). "The Caravan-Gods of Palmyra". Journal of Roman Studies. 22 (1): 107–116. doi:10.2307/297093. ISSN   0075-4358.
  11. ↑ Teixidor, J. (1979). The Pantheon of Palmyra. Leiden. pp. 118f.
  12. ↑ Drijvers, HJW (1976). The Religion of Palmyra. Leiden. p. 13.
  13. ↑ Łukasiak, E. Jarhibol's iconography,. pp. fig. 19.
  14. ↑ "Altar Dedicated to the Palmyrene God Iarhibol". Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. September 23, 2011.
  15. ↑ "Julius Terentius Performing a Sacrifice - Yale University Art Gallery". artgallery.yale.edu. Retrieved 18 December 2021.
  16. ↑ Lucinda Dirven: The Problem of Parthian Art at Dura. In: Ted Kaizer (Hrsg.): Religion, Society and Culture at Dura-Europos. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge/ New York 2016, ISBN   978-1-107-12379-3, pp. 68–88, esp. 81-82
  17. ↑ J. H. Breasted: Wall Paintings from the Fortress of Dura. 1924, pp. 85–86.
  18. ↑ Barron, Caroline (12 August 2018). "Fresco of Julius Terentius Performing a Sacrifice, Dura Europos". www.judaism-and-rome.org. Retrieved 18 December 2021.
  19. ↑ Cristina Marta Acqua: Imperial Representation at Dura-Europos. In: Ted Kaizer (ed.): Religion, Society and Culture at Dura-Europos. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge/ New York/ Melbourne/ Delhi/ Singapore 2016, ISBN   978-1-107-12379-3, pp. 144–176, hier besonders 153-154
  20. ↑ J. H. Breasted: Wall Paintings from the Fortress of Dura. 1924, p. 98.

34°45′03″N40°43′33″E / 34.750926°N 40.725697°E / 34.750926; 40.725697

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.