Thomas Kane (economist)

Last updated

Thomas Joseph Kane
Born (1961-09-05) September 5, 1961 (age 62)
OccupationAmerican education economist

Thomas Joseph Kane (born September 5, 1961) is an American education economist who currently holds the position of Walter H. Gale Professor of Education and Economics at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. [1] He has performed research on education policy, labour economics and econometrics. [2] During Bill Clinton's first term as U.S. President, Kane served on the Council of Economic Advisers.

Contents

Early life and education

Kane earned a B.A. in economics from the University of Notre Dame in 1983, followed by an M.A. in economics from the University of Michigan in 1986, a M.P.P. and Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1988 and 1991. His doctoral thesis was on the determinants of Afro-Americans' entry to college during the 1970s and 1980s.

Career

After graduating, Kane became an assistant professor of public policy at Harvard Kennedy School at Harvard University, where he was promoted to associate professor in 1997. While at Harvard, Kane also began working as a research associate at the National Bureau of Economic Research, with which he still maintains an affiliation, held appointment as visiting fellow at Brookings Institution and as national fellow at the Hoover Institution, and worked as senior economist for labour, education, and welfare on the Council of Economic Advisers under Bill Clinton (1995–96).

In 2001, Kane became the Professor of Policy Studies and Economics at the University of California, Los Angeles, though he returned to an appointment as Professor of Education and Economics at the Harvard Graduate School of Education and as faculty director of the Harvard Center for Education Policy Research in 2005, where he has worked ever since. From 2008 to 2012, Kane was the deputy director of the U.S. education branch of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. In 2013, the Harvard Graduate School of Education honoured him with the position of Walter H. Gale Professor of Education. [3]

Research

Kane has conducted extensive research on education in the United States, ranging from K-12 education to higher education and covering topics such as the effectiveness of charter schools, teacher education and certification, education policy, affirmative action, and education finance. Throughout much of his research, Kane has cooperated with Douglas Staiger (Dartmouth College).

Collegiate enrollment

Since his Ph.D., Kane has researched the determinants of enrollment into college in the U.S. and the impact of family background on it. [4] Examining Afro-Americans' college enrollment rate in the U.S. during the 1980s, Kane attributes its 1980-84 decline to the growth of direct college costs and their 1984-87 rebound to the strong growth in the average parental education of Afro-American youth. [5] Analysing the impact of affirmative action admitting the use of racial preferences in college admissions, Kane observes that the use of such action seems to be limited to the most selective fifth of colleges and that the net relationship between college selectivity, earnings and college graduation rates is positive for minority and other students, going on to argue that colleges' student bodies wouldn't be as racially diverse without affirmative action. [6] Importantly, Kane and David T. Ellwood find that the college enrollment rates of youth displaying similar levels of academic preparation for college still vary considerably depending on their parents' income and education, with the gaps having widened in the 1980s and 1990s due to the growth in the returns to college education. [7] Finally, together with Christopher Avery, Kane has investigated the impact of Boston's College Opportunity and Career Help (COACH) programme, a programme that has Harvard University students help public high school students make career plans and submit college and financial aid applications, and found that (i) high school students tend to overestimate both the tuition rates and rates of return to college education independent of their socioeconomic background, (ii) that the complexity of the financial aid and college application processes often discourages low-income students even if they are qualified and interested in a college education, (iii) and that many public high school students reporting an interest in college education either don't believe they are qualified and/or never wanted to pursue college education anyway. [8]

School accountability

Another substantial body of Kane's research addresses the topics of school accountability, school choice and quality, and the effectiveness of charter schools. With regard to school accountability, Kane and Staiger have been critical of test-based school accountability systems, arguing that the imprecision and volatility of school test scores (e.g. due to sampling variation or sample size-invariant idiosyncrasies) often used as a basis for such systems may weaken or pervert incentives. Instead, they advocate for extending rewards and bonuses even to schools without extremely high scores to effectively incentivize large schools, not making them contingent on improvements in each racial group to avoid disadvantages for integrated schools, to use improvements across both years and outcomes as a basis, and to account for the impact of test score volatility and the choice of baseline year. [9] Moreover, they note that, even in states with strong financial incentives, the marginal reward to schools for raising student performance is dwarfed by the expected increase in students' labour market value due to such improvements. [10]

In research with Justine Hastings, Kane and Staiger study the determinants of families' school choices and the effectiveness of public school choice plans, finding that parents prefer close-by schools and their valuation of high-performing schools increases in their own academic ability, though such preferences also display strong idiosyncrasies. Moreover, they find that public school choice plans plans are likely to yield a one-sided increase in parental demands for better school quality at already high-performing schools. [11] In further investigation, Kane, Staiger and Hastings observe that — if offered public school choice plans - parents from ethnic minorities trade off high-performing schools against schools wherein their minority is highly represented, whereas parents with high socioeconomic status tend to focus on school performance alone; this results in lower demand for better school quality at schools that serve mostly minority families or families with low socioeconomic status, implying that public school choice plans may exacerbate educational inequality. [12] Moreover, in research with David Deming, Kane, Staiger and Hastings find that college attainment among lottery participants assigned to their first-choice public school increases due to these schools being generally of higher quality, though the gains in college attainment are strongly concentrated among girls since these tend to take better advantage of the improved learning environment (e.g. via preparatory courses for college). [13]

With regard to the effectiveness of charter schools, Kane, Angrist, Dynarski, Pathak, and Christopher Walters find that attending a KIPP charter school increases the average achievement of students by 0.36 standard deviations in math and 0.12 standard deviations in reading per year spent in such a school, with most of the gains accruing to students with special needs and limited English proficiency. [14] [15] In further research with Atila Abdulkadiroglu, they also find that being assigned by lottery to a Boston charter school strongly and significantly raises middle and high school students' test scores, whereas being assigned to a pilot school sometimes decreases test scores. [16] Finally, Kane has also studied the relationship between school quality and housing prices: together with Staiger and Stephanie Riegg, he finds evidence that school boundaries systematically affect housing prices, though the impact is prone to overestimation and partly mediated by demographic characteristics and improvements in housing that are independent from school boundaries. [17]

Teacher effectiveness

The effectiveness of teachers constitutes a third area of Kane's research. Criticizing the lack of improvement in U.S.-American teachers' effectiveness, Kane, Staiger and Robert J. Gordon suggest to (i) reduce entry barriers to teaching, (ii) increase barriers to tenure, (iii) award bonuses to highly effective teachers willing to teach at disadvantaged schools, (iv) measure teachers' job performance, and (v) track student performance and teacher effectiveness over time. [18] Comparing different methods to estimate teachers' impacts on student achievement, Kane and Staiger argue for the impact to be estimated most accurately if both prior student test scores and mean classroom characteristics are considered; they find that teacher-specific effects fade by about half each year after teachers' initial assignment to a class. [19] Moreover, in further work with Jonah Rockoff, Kane and Staiger find that - unlike teachers' performance in classrooms during the first two years - teacher certification poorly predicts teachers' future effectiveness. [20] Together with Brian Jacob, Kane, Staiger and Rockoff also observe that composite measures of teachers' cognitive and non-cognitive skills predict well teachers' effectiveness, though individual measures do not. [21] Finally, in joint work with John Tyler, Eric Taylor and Amy Wooten, Kane finds classroom-based measures of teaching effectiveness to be good predictors of student achievement (though some teaching practices predict achievement more than others), leading him to suggest that teacher evaluations should use both classroom observations and student test scores. [22]

Kane has published extensively on the measurement of teacher effectiveness as part of his involvement in the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation's Measuring Effective Teaching (MET) project. In particular, Kane and Staiger found that (i) measures of teaching effectiveness such as FFT, CLASS, PLATO, MQI, and UTOP are positively correlated with student achievement gains; (ii) the reliable assessment of teacher's practices necessitates the averaging of scores over multiple observations, (iii) the combination of observation scores with evidence of student achievement gains and student feedback is more predictive and reliable; (iv) unlike teaching experience and graduate degrees, the combined measure identifies teachers with larger gains on the state tests; and (v) teachers performing strongly on the combined measure also performed well in terms of their students' in-class effort, enjoyment and gains in terms of math comprehension and literacy. [23] Later research by Kane and his MET co-researchers Staiger, Daniel McCaffrey and Trey Miller confirmed that the measures of effective teaching assessed within the MET project successfully identified teachers who produced on average higher gains in student achievement, with the differences being roughly as large as what would have been predicted based on their effectiveness as measured in 2009-10. [24] The implications of the findings of the MET project for the design of teacher evaluation systems are summarized in Kane's 2015 book Designing Teacher Evaluation Systems (with Kerri Kerr and Robert Pianta as co-authors). [25]

Returns on post-secondary education

A fourth area of Kane's research regards the returns to and financing of postsecondary education. For example, he and Cecilia Rouse find that the labour market returns to 2- and 4-year college credits are similarly large - ca. 5% per year of college - and not due to signalling., [26] and that U.S. community colleges have played a key role in providing access to higher education to older, part-time or less well-prepared students, substantially raising aggregate educational attainment and even non-graduates' earnings, even for non-graduates. [27] Furthermore, together with Staiger, they also draw attention to misestimations in OLS and IV estimates in the returns to schooling due to systematic misreporting of educational attainment by survey respondents if such attainment doesn't correspond to a degree. [28]

With respect to the financing of postsecondary education, Kane finds that especially low-income youth are very sensitive to the price of college education, but also that means-tested grant programmes haven't been more effective in increasing the college enrollment of that target group than general tuition subsidies. [29] Relatedly, in his evaluation of the Cal Grant (a means-tested financial aid for college), Kane finds that grant eligibility increases the college enrollment of financial aid applicants by 3-4 percentage points, especially for private Californian 4-year colleges. [30] Similarly, in his evaluation of the impact of the D.C. Tuition Assistance Program, which has subsidized the tuition of D.C. residents attending public higher education institutions in nearby states since 2000, Kane finds that the programme has increased the number of Pell grant recipients and college freshmen from D.C. by at least 15%, especially within the Afro-American community. [31] Many of these themes are taken up by Kane's 1999 book The Price of Admission, wherein he criticizes the growing dependence of college enrollment on family income and the sometimes perverse interactions of state and federal policies for financial aid, and suggests a number of reforms to improve the effectiveness of public subsidies for college, such as limiting the eligibility of Pell grants to college freshmen and sophomores and providing a larger share of public college tuition subsidies based on students' post-college resources rather than parents' pre-college income and assets. [32] Finally, together with Peter Orszag and David Gunter, Kane finds that higher education spending has been increasingly crowded out by other items of state budgets since the late 1970s, in particular Medicaid, with countercyclical reductions in higher education spending typically becoming permanent in the absence of procyclical increases. [33]

Other topics

In their research on abortion in the U.S., Kane and Staiger find that restricting the access to abortion, including through abortion clinic closures or restrictions on Medicaid funding for them lowered teenage birth rates during the 1980s due to decreases in in-wedlock births (out-of-wedlock births were unaffected). [34] Moreover, Kane, Staiger, Phillip Levine and David Zimmerman find that the fertility rates in those states legalizing abortion decreased by 4% (11% if interstate abortions are taken into account), with most of the impact accruing to reduced births among teenage, middle-aged, non-White and/or unmarried women, thus suggesting that a reversal of Roe v. Wade might raise birth rates but be strongly undermined by abortions being legally performed out of state. [35]

Studying the potential of the German vocational training system for the U.S., Kane (together with Dietmar Harhoff) has argued that the conditions that U.S. employers would be less willing to invest into vocational training than in Germany, leading him to doubt that the introduction of the German apprenticeship system would increase the earnings of comparable American youth and improve the school-to-work transitions of in particular minority youth. [36]

Selected publications

Related Research Articles

A school voucher, also called an education voucher in a voucher system, is a certificate of government funding for students at schools chosen by themselves or their parents. Funding is usually for a particular year, term, or semester. In some countries, states, or local jurisdictions, the voucher can be used to cover or reimburse home schooling expenses. In some countries, vouchers only exist for tuition at private schools.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charter schools in the United States</span> Taxation-funded privately-run schools

Charter schools in the United States are primary or secondary education institutions which receive government funding but operate with a degree of autonomy or independence from local public school districts. Charter schools have a contract with local public school districts or other governmental authorizing bodies that allow them to operate. These contracts, or charters, are how charter schools bear their name. Charter schools are open to all students, depending on capacity, and do not charge tuition. 7.4 percent of all public school students attended a charter school in the 2021-2022 school year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sendhil Mullainathan</span> American Professor of Computation and Behavioral science

Sendhil Mullainathan is an American professor of Computation and Behavioral Science at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business and the author of Scarcity: Why Having Too Little Means So Much. He was hired with tenure by Harvard in 2004 after having spent six years at MIT.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eric Hanushek</span> American economist

Eric Alan Hanushek is an economist who has written prolifically on public policy with a special emphasis on the economics of education. Since 2000, he has been a Paul and Jean Hanna Senior Fellow at the Hoover Institution, an American public policy think tank located at Stanford University in California. He was awarded the Yidan Prize for Education Research in 2021.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Joshua Angrist</span> Israeli–American economist

Joshua David Angrist is an Israeli–American economist and Ford Professor of Economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Angrist, together with Guido Imbens, was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 2021 "for their methodological contributions to the analysis of causal relationships".

Value-added modeling is a method of teacher evaluation that measures the teacher's contribution in a given year by comparing the current test scores of their students to the scores of those same students in previous school years, as well as to the scores of other students in the same grade. In this manner, value-added modeling seeks to isolate the contribution, or value added, that each teacher provides in a given year, which can be compared to the performance measures of other teachers. VAMs are considered to be fairer than simply comparing student achievement scores or gain scores without considering potentially confounding context variables like past performance or income. It is also possible to use this approach to estimate the value added by the school principal or the school as a whole.

Ronald F. Ferguson in Cleveland, Ohio is an economist who researches factors that affect educational achievement. Major themes in his work include the race-related achievement gap in the United States and how to improve schools and identify effective teachers.

Parag A. Pathak is Professor of Economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and is affiliated with the National Bureau of Economic Research where he co-founded and directs the working group on market design.

Educator effectiveness is a United States K-12 school system education policy initiative that measures the quality of an educator performance in terms of improving student learning. It describes a variety of methods, such as observations, student assessments, student work samples and examples of teacher work, that education leaders use to determine the effectiveness of a K-12 educator.

Douglas O. Staiger is the John French Professor in Economics at Dartmouth College. His research focuses on the economics of education and of healthcare, and on statistical methods in economics. Staiger is also a co-founder of ArborMetrix, a healthcare analytics company.

Susan Marie Dynarski is an American economist who is currently professor of education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. She is also a faculty research associate of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

Paul William Glewwe is an economist and Professor of Applied Economics at the University of Minnesota. His research interests include economic development and growth, the economics of the public sector, and poverty and welfare. He formerly was the Director of the Center for International Food and Agricultural Policy and served as co-chair of the education programme of the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL).

Thomas S. Dee is an American economist and the Barnett Family Professor of Education at Stanford University, where he also directs the John W. Gardner Center for Youth and Their Communities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Susanna Loeb</span> American economist

Susanna Loeb is an American education economist and director of the Annenberg Institute at Brown University. She was previously the Barnett Family Professor of Education at the Stanford Graduate School of Education, where she also served as founding director of the Center for Education Policy Analysis (CEPA). Moreover, she directs Policy Analysis for California Education (PACE). Her research interests include the economics of education and the relationship between schools and educational policies, in particular school finance and teacher labor markets.

Brian Aaron Jacob is an American economist and a professor of public policy, economics and education at the Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy of the University of Michigan. There, he also currently serves as co-director of the. In 2008, Jacob's research on education policy was awarded the David N. Kershaw Award, which is given by the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management and honours persons who have made a distinguished contribution to the field of public policy analysis and management before the age of 40. His doctoral advisor at the University of Chicago was Freakonomics author Steven Levitt.

Jonah E. Rockoff is an American education economist and currently works as Professor of Finance and Economics at the Columbia Graduate School of Business. Rockoff's research interests include the economics of education and public finance. His research on the management of public schools has been awarded the 2016 George S. Eccles Research Award in Finance and Economics by Columbia Business School.

James H. Wyckoff is a U.S.-American education economist who currently serves as Memorial Professor of Education and Public Policy at the University of Virginia, where he is also the Director of the Center for Education Policy and Workforce Competitiveness. His research on the impact of teacher compensation on teacher performance has been awarded the Raymond Vernon Memorial Award of the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management in 2015.

Helen F. Ladd is an education economist who currently works as the Susan B. King Professor Emeritus of Public Policy and Economics at Duke University's Sanford School of Public Policy. In recognition of her research on the economics of education, she has been elected to the National Academy for Education and the National Academy of Sciences.

John Forrest Kain was an American empirical economist and college professor. He is notable for first hypothesising spatial mismatch theory, whereby he argued that there are insufficient job opportunities in low-income household areas. Kain is also notable for his focus on transport economics, for his long career of teaching at Harvard University and the University of Texas at Dallas, as well as for founding the Texas Schools Project.

David J. Deming is an American economist. He is a professor of public policy at the Harvard Kennedy School, professor of education and economics at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, and Faculty Co-Director of the Project on Workforce at Harvard. His research focuses on the economics of education in general and the impact of education policies on long-run non-test score outcomes. In 2018, David Deming received the David N. Kershaw Award and Prize from the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management for his work in the areas of secondary education, vocational training and skills.

References

  1. ↑ Profile of Thomas Kane on the website of the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Retrieved April 4, 2018.
  2. ↑ Curriculum vitae of Thomas Kane from the website of Harvard University. Retrieved April 4, 2018.
  3. ↑ Curriculum vitae of Thomas Kane from the website of Harvard University. Retrieved April 4, 2018.
  4. ↑ Kane, T.J. (2004). College-going and inequality. Social Inequality, No. 354.
  5. ↑ Kane, Thomas J. (1994). "College Entry by Blacks since 1970: The Role of College Costs, Family Background, and the Returns to Education". Journal of Political Economy. 102 (5): 878–911. doi:10.1086/261958.
  6. ↑ Kane, Thomas J. (1998). "Racial and Ethnic Preferences in College Admissions". Ohio State Law Journal. 59: 971.
  7. ↑ "Chapter 10. Who is Getting a College Education? Family Background and the Growing Gaps in Enrollment". Securing the Future: Investing in Children from Birth to College. Russell Sage Foundation. 2000. pp. 283–324. ISBN   978-1-61044-150-6.
  8. ↑ Avery, C., Kane, T.J. (2004). Student perceptions of college opportunities: The Boston COACH program. In: Hoxby, C.M. (ed.). College choices: The Economics of Where to Go, When to Go, and How to Pay For It. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 355-394.
  9. ↑ Kane, Thomas J.; Staiger, Douglas O.; Grissmer, David; Ladd, Helen F. (2002). "Volatility in School Test Scores: Implications for Test-Based Accountability Systems". Brookings Papers on Education Policy (5): 235–283. doi:10.1353/pep.2002.0010. JSTOR   20067246.
  10. ↑ Kane, Thomas J.; Staiger, Douglas O. (2002). "The Promise and Pitfalls of Using Imprecise School Accountability Measures". Journal of Economic Perspectives. pp. 91–114.
  11. ↑ Hastings, J. S.; Kane, T. J.; Staiger, D. O. (November 2005). "Parental preferences and school competition: Evidence from a public school choice program". NBER Working Paper No. 11805. doi: 10.3386/w11805 .
  12. ↑ Hastings, J.; Kane, T. J.; Staiger, D. O. (May 2009). "Heterogeneous preferences and the efficacy of public school choice" (PDF). Unpublished Working Paper.
  13. ↑ Deming, David J.; Hastings, Justine S.; Kane, Thomas J.; Staiger, Douglas O. (2014). "School Choice, School Quality, and Postsecondary Attainment". The American Economic Review. 104 (3): 991–1013. doi:10.1257/aer.104.3.991. JSTOR   42920726. PMC   4771417 . PMID   27244675.
  14. ↑ Angrist, Joshua D.; Dynarski, Susan M.; Kane, Thomas J.; Pathak, Parag A.; Walters, Christopher R. (2010). "Inputs and Impacts in Charter Schools: KIPP Lynn". American Economic Review. pp. 239–243.
  15. ↑ Angrist, Joshua D.; Dynarski, Susan M.; Kane, Thomas J.; Pathak, Parag A.; Walters, Christopher R. (2012). "Who Benefits from <SCP>KIPP</SCP>?". Journal of Policy Analysis and Management. 31 (4): 837–860. doi:10.1002/pam.21647.
  16. ↑ Abdulkaridoglu, A.; et al. (2011). "Accountability and flexibility in public schools: Evidence from Boston's charters and pilots" (PDF). Quarterly Journal of Economics . 126 (2): 699–748. doi:10.1093/qje/qjr017. hdl: 1721.1/61945 .
  17. ↑ Kane, T. J.; Riegg, S. K.; Staiger, D. O. (2006). "School quality, neighborhoods, and housing prices". American Law and Economics Review. 8 (2): 183–212. doi:10.1093/aler/ahl007. JSTOR   42705497.
  18. ↑ Gordon, R.J., Kane, T.J., Staiger, D. (2008). Identifying effective teachers using performance on the job. In: Furman, J., Bordoff, J.E. (eds.). Path to Prosperity: Hamilton Project Ideas on Income Security, Education, and Taxes. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution.
  19. ↑ Kane, T. J.; Staiger, D. O. (December 2008). "Estimating teacher impacts on student achievement: An experimental evaluation". NBER Working Paper No. 14607. doi: 10.3386/w14607 .
  20. ↑ Kane, T.J., Rockoff, J.E., Staiger, D.O. (2008). What does certification tell us about teacher effectiveness? Evidence from New York City. Economics of Education Review, 27(6), pp. 615-631.
  21. ↑ Rockoff, J.E. et al. (2011). Can you recognize an effective teacher when you recruit one? Education Finance and Policy, 6(1), pp. 43-74.
  22. ↑ Kane, T.J. et al. (2011). Identifying effective classroom techniques using student achievement data. Journal of Human Resources, 46(3), pp. 587-613.
  23. ↑ Kane, T.J., Staiger, D.O. (2012). Gathering Feedback for Teaching: Combining High-Quality Observations with Student Surveys and Achievement Gains. Washington, D.C.: Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
  24. ↑ Kane, T.J. et al. (2013). Have we identified effective teachers? Validating measures of effective teaching using random assignment. Washington, D.C.: Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
  25. ↑ Kane, T., Kerr, K., Pianta, R. (2015). Designing Teacher Evaluation Systems: New Guidance from the Measures of Effective Teaching Project. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
  26. ↑ Kane, Thomas J.; Rouse, Cecilia Elena (1995). "Labor-Market Returns to Two- and Four-Year College". The American Economic Review. 85 (3): 600–614. JSTOR   2118190.
  27. ↑ Kane, Thomas J.; Rouse, Cecilia Elena (1999). "The Community College: Educating Students at the Margin Between College and Work". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 13: 63–84. doi:10.1257/jep.13.1.63.
  28. ↑ Kane, T. J.; Rouse, C. E.; Staiger, D. (July 1999). "Estimating Returns to Schooling when Schooling is Misreported". NBER Working Paper No. 7235. doi: 10.3386/w7235 .
  29. ↑ Kane, T. J. (July 1995). "Rising Public College Tuition and College Entry: How Well Do Public Subsidies Promote Access to College?". NBER Working Paper No. 5164. doi: 10.3386/w5164 .
  30. ↑ Kane, T. J. (May 2003). "A Quasi-Experimental Estimate of the Impact of Financial Aid on College-Going". NBER Working Paper No. 9703. doi: 10.3386/w9703 .
  31. ↑ Kane, T.J. (2007). Evaluating the impact of the D.C. tuition assistance grant program. Journal of Human Resources, 42(3), pp. 555-582.
  32. ↑ Kane, T.J. (1999). The Price of Admission: Rethinking how Americans Pay for College. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution.
  33. ↑ Kane, T.J., Orszag, P.R., Gunter, D.L. (2003). State fiscal constraints and higher education spending: The role of Medicaid and the business cycle. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute.
  34. ↑ Kane, T. J.; Staiger, D. (1996). "Teen Motherhood and Abortion Access". Quarterly Journal of Economics. 111 (2): 467–506. doi:10.2307/2946685. JSTOR   2946685.
  35. ↑ Levine, P. B.; et al. (1999). "Roe v Wade and American fertility". American Journal of Public Health . 89 (2): 199–203. doi:10.2105/AJPH.89.2.199. PMC   1508542 . PMID   9949749.
  36. ↑ Harhoff, D.; Kane, T. J. (1997). "Is the German apprenticeship system a panacea for the US labor market?". Journal of Population Economics . 10 (2): 171–196. doi:10.1007/s001480050037. S2CID   155891294.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.