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Transportation and health is a branch of public health dealing with efforts to improve health outcomes related to transportation. [1] [2] [3] [4]
Transportation is a core part of a functioning society, and managing the health impact of transportation falls under the branch of public health. Many measures have been taken over the years to improve health outcomes related to transportation. Accidents are the third leading cause of death in the United States, and one quarter of those are motor vehicle accidents, accounting for 40,327 deaths per year. [5] Starting in the 1960s, campaigns began popping up all over the United States to promote motor vehicle safety. [6] These campaigns used a multi-pronged approach to increase the safety of automobiles. They lobbied locally and in Washington DC to mandate certain safety features such as airbags and seatbelts, both of which reduce injury in the event of an accident. [6] [7] These campaigns also used a variety of public health intervention methods to spread awareness of motor vehicle safety. [6] In the states where interventions took place, seat belt usage skyrocketed. [6] Motor vehicles contribute greatly to aggregate emissions all over the globe, which can have serious negative impacts on the health of the population. [8] In the 1970s, the Nixon administration created the Environmental Protection Agency as well as passing the Clean Air Act. [8] Both of these measures not only helped to reduce the amount of harmful emissions being produced by motor vehicles in the US, but they also helped improve health measures. For example, it was found that reducing the amount of lead in gasoline directly correlated with decreasing blood lead content from 1976 to 1980. [8]
Biking is an essential form of transportation for many citizens. Biking comes with its own set of health benefits and detriments. Biking is one of the few forms of transportation that keeps the traveler active. This activity gives the rider a cardiovascular workout increasing muscle strength and joint mobility while reducing stress levels and body fat content. [9] Although biking does have wonderful health outcomes for the body, the risks biking poses does have an impact on overall health outcomes. While helmets do protect the rider in the event of crash or accident, the mere presence of a helmet increases the likelihood of a rider getting into an accident with a car. [10] More bike-specific infrastructure such as bike lanes and bike paths is needed to keep bikers safe. [10] Commercial air travel ranks as the safest form of transportation in terms of deaths per billion miles traveled, with .07 deaths/billion miles traveled, followed by bus travel at .11 deaths/billion miles traveled and train transport at .43 deaths/billion miles traveled. [11] Automotive travel ranked as the most dangerous with 7.3 deaths/billion miles traveled. [11]
The six main pollutants monitored by the EPA that can have serious health consequences are particulate matter, ground-level ozone, lead, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. [12] Particulate matter consists of a mix of solid and liquid matter such as dust, dirt, or smoke that makes up two categories, PM10 and PM2.5, the former being anything smaller than 10 micrometers and the latter being anything smaller than 2.5 micrometers. [12] PM10 can get deep within your lungs while PM2.5 is so small it can get into your blood stream both of which cause damage and is overall harmful for your health. [12] When nitrogen oxides interact with volatile organic compounds near the surface of the Earth, ground-level ozone is formed which can cause a variety of respiratory issues and exacerbate existing conditions like COPD and asthma which is common in vulnerable populations such as the elderly and children. [12] Lead is a soft metal that when introduced to the human body, can cause damage throughout many body systems including the nervous, cardiovascular, immune, and renal systems. [12] Carbon monoxide is introduced into the air through combustion reactions, and when inhaled, the carbon monoxide mimics oxygen molecules and binds to hemoglobin, not allowing for proper oxygenation, which can exacerbate pre-existing conditions such as asthma and COPD. [12] Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide both are synthesized through combustion reactions and have negative impacts on the respiratory systems. [12] All six of the criteria air pollutants are created either directly or indirectly from combustion reactions of fossil fuels. [12]
Measures have been taken starting in the 1970s to start to reduce the amount of pollutants in the air, thus aiming to improve health outcomes related to air quality. [12] For example, the catalytic converter was introduced to the automotive industry. It functions by filtering exhaust from a combustion engine in a vehicle for potentially harmful gases and catalyzes reactions to transform them into less harmful chemicals such as water, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. [13] Also, reducing the amount of lead in gasoline did directly correlate with a decrease in blood lead content during a four year period in the 1970s. [12] Although continuous measures have been taken to reduce the emissions content due to cars, they still rank unfavorably compared with other forms of travel. [14]
"In absolute terms, the picture is clear. Worldwide, road users account for about 71% of transport CO2 emissions, with railway companies making up less than 1.8%, next to 12.3% for aviation and 14.3% for shipping, according to the International Energy Agency and International Union of Railways." [14]
In terms of emission production, bikes are the obvious leader in this category considering they produce nearly no emissions to run. [15] They are also smaller and create less pollution in terms of production. [16] On average, the production of a single bicycle creates around 530 pounds of carbon dioxide, which can be generally offset by about 400 miles of biking instead of driving. [16] There are arguments that bikers need to consume more food, which leads to emissions productions in other ways and that drastically adds to the total emissions produced by bikers in comparison to drivers, but a biker would have to have a diet extremely high in beef consumption in order to substantially offset the emissions benefits of biking. [16] Of course, like any other mode of transportation, feasibility and practicality play a role in the use of bikes in a different setting. Biking is impractical for long distance journeys or journeys where one would need to bring many things with them. But, for the most part, biking is most practical in suburban and urban environments for short journeys. Over 60% car journeys in the US in 2008 were between 0–10 miles long. [17] This statistic illustrates that bikes are a very feasible option for a lot of journeys in the US. On top of the feasibility of bike usage due to distance, biking is also the quickest way to travel around urban areas. [18] Considering that 62.7% of the population of the US lives in cities, biking is a feasibility for a large percentage of the population. [19]
Public transportation is broad term encompassing a wide variety of methods of transportation including commuter rails, light rails, heavy rails, trolleys, and buses. These diverse methods of transportation provides millions of Americans with a way to travel around the area in which they live. Public transportation as a whole has a variety of health benefits. Using public transportation makes a person more active, therefore making them more likely to be healthier and decreasing risk for diseases such as cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes. [20] [21] Taking public transit makes a rider safer compared to drivers in personal vehicles. [11] Public transit produces less emissions than cars which reduces levels in the air, decreasing risk for the harmful effects of emissions. [21]
Commuting is periodically recurring travel between a place of residence and place of work or study, where the traveler, referred to as a commuter, leaves the boundary of their home community. By extension, it can sometimes be any regular or often repeated travel between locations, even when not work-related. The modes of travel, time taken and distance traveled in commuting varies widely across the globe. Most people in least-developed countries continue to walk to work. The cheapest method of commuting after walking is usually by bicycle, so this is common in low-income countries but is also increasingly practised by people in wealthier countries for environmental and health reasons. In middle-income countries, motorcycle commuting is very common.
Vehicle emissions control is the study of reducing the emissions produced by motor vehicles, especially internal combustion engines. The primary emissions studied include hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and sulfur oxides. Starting in the 1950s and 1960s, various regulatory agencies were formed with a primary focus on studying the vehicle emissions and their effects on human health and the environment. As the worlds understanding of vehicle emissions improved, so did the devices used to mitigate their impacts. The regulatory requirements of the Clean Air Act, which was amended many times, greatly restricted acceptable vehicle emissions. With the restrictions, vehicles started being designed more efficiently by utilizing various emission control systems and devices which became more common in vehicles over time.
Emission standards are the legal requirements governing air pollutants released into the atmosphere. Emission standards set quantitative limits on the permissible amount of specific air pollutants that may be released from specific sources over specific timeframes. They are generally designed to achieve air quality standards and to protect human life. Different regions and countries have different standards for vehicle emissions.
A zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) is a vehicle that does not emit exhaust gas or other pollutants from the onboard source of power. The California definition also adds that this includes under any and all possible operational modes and conditions. This is because under cold-start conditions for example, internal combustion engines tend to produce the maximum amount of pollutants. In a number of countries and states, transport is cited as the main source of greenhouse gases (GHG) and other pollutants. The desire to reduce this is thus politically strong.
Exhaust gas or flue gas is emitted as a result of the combustion of fuels such as natural gas, gasoline (petrol), diesel fuel, fuel oil, biodiesel blends, or coal. According to the type of engine, it is discharged into the atmosphere through an exhaust pipe, flue gas stack, or propelling nozzle. It often disperses downwind in a pattern called an exhaust plume.
Diesel exhaust is the exhaust gas produced by a diesel engine, plus any contained particulates. Its composition may vary with the fuel type, rate of consumption or speed of engine operation, and whether the engine is in an on-road vehicle, farm vehicle, locomotive, marine vessel, or stationary generator or other application.
A green vehicle, clean vehicle, eco-friendly vehicle or environmentally friendly vehicle is a road motor vehicle that produces less harmful impacts to the environment than comparable conventional internal combustion engine vehicles running on gasoline or diesel, or one that uses certain alternative fuels. Presently, in some countries the term is used for any vehicle complying or surpassing the more stringent European emission standards, or California's zero-emissions vehicle standards, or the low-carbon fuel standards enacted in several countries.
A fossil fuel power station is a thermal power station which burns a fossil fuel, such as coal, oil, or natural gas, to produce electricity. Fossil fuel power stations have machinery to convert the heat energy of combustion into mechanical energy, which then operates an electrical generator. The prime mover may be a steam turbine, a gas turbine or, in small plants, a reciprocating gas engine. All plants use the energy extracted from the expansion of a hot gas, either steam or combustion gases. Although different energy conversion methods exist, all thermal power station conversion methods have their efficiency limited by the Carnot efficiency and therefore produce waste heat.
The U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards are limits on atmospheric concentration of six pollutants that cause smog, acid rain, and other health hazards. Established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under authority of the Clean Air Act, NAAQS is applied for outdoor air throughout the country.
Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances called pollutants in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials. It is also the contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment either by chemical, physical, or biological agents that alters the natural features of the atmosphere. There are many different types of air pollutants, such as gases, particulates and biological molecules. Air pollution can cause diseases, allergies, and even death to humans; it can also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and crops, and may damage the natural environment or built environment. Air pollution can be caused by both human activities and natural phenomena.
A mobile emission reduction credit (MERC) is an emission reduction credit generated within the transportation sector. The term “mobile sources” refers to motor vehicles, engines, and equipment that move, or can be moved, from place to place. Mobile sources include vehicles that operate on roads and highways ("on-road" or "highway" vehicles), as well as nonroad vehicles, engines, and equipment. Examples of mobile sources are passenger cars, light trucks, large trucks, buses, motorcycles, earth-moving equipment, nonroad recreational vehicles (such as dirt bikes and snowmobiles), farm and construction equipment, cranes, lawn and garden power tools, marine engines, ships, railroad locomotives, and airplanes. In California, mobile sources account for about 60 percent of all ozone forming emissions and for over 90 percent of all carbon monoxide (CO) emissions from all sources.
The United States produced 5.2 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2020, the second largest in the world after greenhouse gas emissions by China and among the countries with the highest greenhouse gas emissions per person. In 2019 China is estimated to have emitted 27% of world GHG, followed by the United States with 11%, then India with 6.6%. In total the United States has emitted a quarter of world GHG, more than any other country. Annual emissions are over 15 tons per person and, amongst the top eight emitters, is the highest country by greenhouse gas emissions per person.
United States vehicle emission standards are set through a combination of legislative mandates enacted by Congress through Clean Air Act (CAA) amendments from 1970 onwards, and executive regulations managed nationally by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and more recently along with the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). These standards cover tailpipe pollution, including carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate emissions, and newer versions have incorporated fuel economy standards. However they lag behind European emission standards, which limit air pollution from brakes and tires.
Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials into the atmosphere that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damage ecosystems. Health problems attributed to air pollution include premature death, cancer, organ failure, infections, behavioral changes, and other diseases. These health effects are not equally distributed across the U.S. population; there are demographic disparities by race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and education. Air pollution can derive from natural sources, such as wildfires and volcanoes, or from anthropogenic sources. Anthropogenic air pollution has affected the United States since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution.
The Clean Air Act (CAA) is the United States' primary federal air quality law, intended to reduce and control air pollution nationwide. Initially enacted in 1963 and amended many times since, it is one of the United States' first and most influential modern environmental laws.
Pollution in California relates to the degree of pollution in the air, water, and land of the U.S. state of California. Pollution is defined as the addition of any substance or any form of energy to the environment at a faster rate than it can be dispersed, diluted, decomposed, recycled, or stored in some harmless form. The combination of three main factors is the cause of notable unhealthy levels of air pollution in California: the activities of over 39 million people, a mountainous terrain that traps pollution, and a warm climate that helps form ozone and other pollutants. Eight of the ten cities in the US with the highest year-round concentration of particulate matter between 2013 and 2015 were in California, and seven out of the ten cities in the US with the worst ozone pollution were also in California. Studies show that pollutants prevalent in California are linked to several health issues, including asthma, lung cancer, birth complications, and premature death. In 2016, Bakersfield, California recorded the highest level of airborne pollutants of any city in the United States.
The environmental impact of transport are significant because transport is a major user of energy, and burns most of the world's petroleum. This creates air pollution, including nitrous oxides and particulates, and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide. and also plant pollution, by heavy metals. Within the transport sector, road transport is the largest contributor to global warming.
Air quality laws govern the emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere. A specialized subset of air quality laws regulate the quality of air inside buildings. Air quality laws are often designed specifically to protect human health by limiting or eliminating airborne pollutant concentrations. Other initiatives are designed to address broader ecological problems, such as limitations on chemicals that affect the ozone layer, and emissions trading programs to address acid rain or climate change. Regulatory efforts include identifying and categorising air pollutants, setting limits on acceptable emissions levels, and dictating necessary or appropriate mitigation technologies.
Air Pollution in Mexico City has been of concern to the city's population and health officials for decades. In the 20th century, Mexico City's population rapidly increased as industrialization brought thousands of migrants from all over the world. Such a rapid and unexpected growth led to the UN declaring Mexico City as the most polluted city in the world in 1992. This was partly due to Mexico City's high altitude, which causes its oxygen levels to be 25% lower. Carbon-based fuels also do not combust completely. Other factors include the proliferation of vehicles, rapid industrial growth, and the population boom. The Mexican government has several active plans to reduce emission levels which require citizen participation, vehicular restrictions, increase of green areas, and expanded bicycle accessibility.
Mobile source air pollution includes any air pollution emitted by motor vehicles, airplanes, locomotives, and other engines and equipment that can be moved from one location to another. Many of these pollutants contribute to environmental degradation and have negative effects on human health. To prevent unnecessary damage to human health and the environment, environmental regulatory agencies such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency have established policies to minimize air pollution from mobile sources. Similar agencies exist at the state level. Due to the large number of mobile sources of air pollution, and their ability to move from one location to another, mobile sources are regulated differently from stationary sources, such as power plants. Instead of monitoring individual emitters, such as an individual vehicle, mobile sources are often regulated more broadly through design and fuel standards. Examples of this include corporate average fuel economy standards and laws that ban leaded gasoline in the United States. The increase in the number of motor vehicles driven in the U.S. has made efforts to limit mobile source pollution challenging. As a result, there have been a number of different regulatory instruments implemented to reach the desired emissions goals.
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