Vellalar

Last updated

Vellalar
Religions Hinduism, Jainism, [1] Christianity [2]
Languages Tamil
Subdivisions
[3]
Related groups Tamil people

Vellalar is a group of castes in the Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and northeastern parts of Sri Lanka. [a] [b] [c] The Vellalar are members of several endogamous [d] [e] castes such as the numerically strong Arunattu Vellalar, Chozhia Vellalar, Karkarthar Vellalar, Kongu Vellalar, Thuluva Vellalar and Sri Lankan Vellalar. [9] [10]

Contents

Etymology

The earliest occurrence of the term Velaalar (வேளாளர்) in Sangam literature is in Paripadal where it is used in the sense of a landowner. [11] The term Velaalar (வேளாளர்) can be derived from the word Vel (வேள்), Vel being a title that was borne by the Velir chieftains of Sangam age among other things. [12]

The word Vellalar (வெள்ளாளர் ) may come from the root Vellam for flood, which gave rise to various rights of land; and it is because of the acquisition of land rights that the Vellalar got their name. [13]

History

Vellalars worshipping lingam, snake-stones and Ganesa from Castes and Tribes of Southern India (1909). Vellalas worshipping lingam, snake-stones and Ganesa..jpg
Vellālars worshipping lingam, snake-stones and Ganēsa from Castes and Tribes of Southern India (1909).

The Vellalars have a long cultural history that goes back to over two millennia in southern India, [14] where once they were the ruling and land-owning community. [15] [16] Though the Vellalar have generally been associated with the landed gentry and agriculture, they are not a homogenous group and various people from diverse backgrounds have identified themselves as a Vellalar in the course of history. [6]

In Sangam literature

The Vellalar are spoken of as a group of people right from the Sangam period and are mentioned in many of the classical works of Sangam literature. The Tolkappiyam does not contain the term Vellalar but refers to a group of people called Velaan Maanthar who apart from practising agriculture had the right to carry weapons and wear garlands when they were involved in affairs of the state. [17] The term Vellalar itself occurs in the sense of a landowner in Paripadal. [11] The poem Pattinappaalai lists the six virtues of Vellalar as abstention from killing, abstention from stealing, propagation of religion, hospitality, justice and honesty. [18]

Post-Sangam period

In the years that immediately followed the Sangam age (from third to sixth century CE), the Tamil lands were ruled by a dynasty called Kalabhras. [19] Historians believe that the Kalabhras belonged to the Vellalar community of warriors who were possibly once the feudatories of the Cholas and the Pallavas. [20] Scholar and historian M. Raghava Iyengar identifies the Kalabhras with the Kalappalar section of the Vellalar and equates king Achyuta Vikranta with Achyuta Kalappala the father of Meykandar. [21] Buddhadatta, the Pali writer who stayed in the Chola kingdom and authored Buddhist manuals refers (in the Nigamanagātha of Vinayavinicchaya, verse 3179) to his patron Achyuta Vikranta who was then (fifth century CE) ruling the Chola kingdom as Kalamba-kula nandane meaning the favourite of the Kalamba family. [22] In Pali language as in Tamil, the word Kalamba or Kalambam (in Tamil) means the Kadamba tree, the sacred totemic symbol that is associated with Tamil god Murugan. [23] [24]

The Velir

The Velir were an ancient group of Tamil chieftains who claimed Yadava (Yadu) descent. [25] The Ay Vels were one such Velir group that ruled the territory in and around Venad during the Sangam period. The word Venad is derived from Vel -nadu, that is the country ruled by Vel chieftains. [26] We know of a queen of Vikramaditya Varaguna, an Ay king of 9th century who is referred to as Murugan Chenthi and as Aykula Mahadevi from inscriptions. Her father, an Ay chief called Chathan Murugan is described as a Vennir Vellala that is a Vellala by birth, [27] in the Huzur plates of king Karunandakkan, the predecessor of Vikramaditya Varaguna. [28]

The Irunkovel or Irukkuvel chieftains were another ancient Velir clan who ruled from their capital Kodumbalur (near Pudukottai district). They were related to the Cholas by marriage. [29] In an inscription of Rajadhiraja Chola an Irukkuvel feudatory who was a high-ranking military officer (Dandanayaka) of the king is described as a Velala. [f]

The Irungovels are considered to be of the same stock as the Hoysalas as in one of the Sangam poems, the ancestor of the Irungovel chieftain is said to have ruled the fortified city of Tuvarai. This city is identified with the Hoysala capital Dwarasamudra by some historians. [31] Also, the legend of the chief killing a tiger (Pulikadimal) has a striking resemblance to the origin legend of the Hoysalas where ‘'sala'’ kills the tiger to save a sage. [32] As per historian Arokiaswami, the Hoysala title ‘'Ballala'’ is only a variant of the Tamil word ‘'Vellala'’. [33] The Hoysala king Veera Ballala III is even now locally known as the ‘'Vellala Maharaja'’ in Thiruvannamalai, the town that served as their capital in 14th century. [34]

The Chola period

According to the anthropologist Kathleen Gough, "the Vellalars were the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola kings, providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the kingdom's bureaucracy, and the upper layer of the peasantry". [16]

Two identical Tamil inscriptions from Avani and Uttanur in Mulbagal Taluk dated in the 3rd year of Kulottunga I (about 1072-1073 CE) describe how the great army of the right hand class (perumpadai valangai mahasenai) having arrived with great weapons of war from the 78-nadus of Chola-mandalam and the 48000-bhumi of Jayangonda-cholamandalam (the northern districts of Tamil Nadu that is Tondaimandalam) conquered and colonized southern Karnataka (Kolar district) by the grace of Rajendrachola (Kulottunga I). [35]

Historian Burton Stein who has done a detailed analysis of this inscription equates the Valangai military forces and the Velaikkara troops of the Cholas with the Vellalas and notes that the contents of the above inscription confirm this identification. [36] The Velaikkara troops were special units of armed forces drawn from the right-hand castes that were close to the king. The units were generally named after the king like Rajaraja-terinda-valangai-velaikkarar, that is the known (terinda) forces of king Rajaraja Chola I . [37] The Chola inscriptions state that the Velaikkara forces pledged under oath to commit suicide in case they failed to defend their king or in the event of his death. [38] The Chalukya kings were also known by the title Velpularasar, that is kings of Vel country (pulam means region or country in Tamil) and as Velkulattarasar, that is kings of the Vel clan (kulam), in epigraphs and in the old Tamil lexicon Divakaram. [39] [40]

The Vellalar also contributed to the Bhakti movement in south India from the seventh century CE onwards and helped revive Hinduism. Many of the Nayanmars, the Shaiva saints, were Vellalar. [41] [42] In the 12th century CE, saint Sekkilan Mahadevadigal Ramadeva sang the glories of these Nayanmars in his magnum opus, the Periyapuranam. [43] Sekkizhar was born in a Vellala family in Kundrathur in Thondaimandalam and had the title Uttama Chola Pallavaraiyan. [44] [45] [46] Sekkilan Mahadevadigal Ramadeva was an elder contemporary of Kulothunga Chola II, the king who is said to have persecuted the Brahmin philosopher Ramanuja for his Vaishnavite preachings by forcing him to sign a document stating Shiva is the greatest god. [47] [48]

Sri Lanka

The Vellalars of Sri Lanka have been chronicled in the Yalpana Vaipava Malai and other historical texts of the Jaffna kingdom. They form half of the Sri Lankan Tamil population and are the major husbandmen, involved in tillage and cattle cultivation. [49] [9] Local Sri Lankan literature, such as the Kailiyai Malai, an account on Kalinga Magha, narrates the migration of Vellala Nattar chiefs from the Coromandel Coast to Sri Lanka. [50]

Their dominance rose under Dutch rule and they formed one of the colonial political elites of the island. [51] [52]

In Jainism

At present, most of the Tamil Jains are from the Vellalar social group. [1] Also, the Saiva Velaalar sect are originally believed to have been Jainas before they embraced Hinduism. [g] The Tamil Jains refer to the Saiva Velaalar as nīr-pūci-nayinārs or nīr-pūci-vellalars meaning the vellalars who left Jainism by smearing the sacred ash or (tiru)-nīru. [h] While some of the Jains assign this conversion to the period of the Bhakti movement in Tamil nadu others link it to a conflict with a ruler of the Vijayanagar empire in the 15th century. [54] The villages and areas settled by the Saiva Velaalar even now have a small number of Jaina families and inscriptional evidence indicate that these were earlier Jaina settlements as is evident by the existence of old Jaina temples. [55]

Current usage

Even though at present, the term "Vellalar" is uncertain, a number of non-cultivating landholding castes like Kaarukaatha Velaalar and the Kondaikatti Velaalar who served ruling dynasties in various capacities also identify themselves as Vellalar. [i] Likewise, the Kottai Pillaimar who were traditionally land-holders and lived inside forts, neither lease land for agriculture nor do they till their own fields. They also do not supervise cultivation directly due to the stigma attached to farming and manual labor. [57] Similarly, the Vellala Chettis, a branch of the Chozhia Vellalars were traders and merchants. [58] The Adi-saiva vellalar sect is a strictly vegetarian Saivite group that traditionally served as priests. [59]

Social status

The Vellalar were considered to be of high status and enjoyed a high rank during the Chola period. They helped promote and stabilize Shaivism during the Chola era and many of the cult's leaders were drawn from the ranks of the Vellalar. They were a prosperous community of farmers and landowners who had provided economic support to Shiva temples in the Tamil country. In the Tamil region, Vellalar like Mudaliyar and Pillai along with certain other non-brahmin groups enjoyed a status equal to that of the Brahmins. The Vellalar also had more authority, power and status than the Brahmins in some social and ritual contexts. [60] They were more orthodox than the Brahmins in their religious practices. [61] [62] The Vellalar nobles had marriage alliances with Chola royal families. [63]

The Smarta Brahmins have always competed with the Tamil Shaivites for religious influence in the temples in the Kaveri delta region. The Smarta adopted the worship of Hindu deities and combined their Sanskritic background with Tamil Saiva and Vaishnava devotionalism and eventually identified themselves as Shaivites and started worshipping in Shiva temples. [64]

From the Sangam period to the Chola period of Indian history (A.d. 600 to 1200), state-level political authority was in the hands of relatively low, Vellalar chieftains, who endowed local and nonlocal Brahmins with land and honors, and were in turn legitimized by them. [65]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ According to Susan Bayly, even in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, "Vellalar affiliation was as vague and uncertain as that of most other south Indian castes"; Vellalar identity was a source of prestige and "There were any number of groups sought to claim Vellalar status for themselves" [4]
  2. ↑ The term "Vellalar" is a generic term for a group of high ranking Non-brahmin castes in TamilNadu [5]
  3. ↑ Coming to the Vellalas, Andre Beteille, an authority on caste in South India writes: The term 'Vellala' is rather confusing because of its comprehensive use. Even the Vellalas proper, those who are of Vellala origin-are not a homogeneous unit but are subdivided into small sections. These sub-groups are always segmented and are endogamous. [6]
  4. ↑ Without going into detail, it must suffice to say that in Sripuram the Vellalas proper are segmented into three endogamous units: Chozhia Vellala, Karaikathu Vellala, and Kodikkal Vellala. [7]
  5. ↑ The Kongu Vellalar is an engogamous group. They use 'gounder' as a title and hence they are also known as Kongu Vellala Gounders. [8]
  6. ↑ Records in his third year gift of 90 sheep for a lamp by Velala Madurantakam alias Tandanayakan Rajadhiraja Ilangovelan of Nadar, a village in Tiraimur-nadu which was a sub-division of Uyyakondan-valanadu in Solamandalam. [30]
  7. ↑ It is also widely believed that the Saiva Vellalas of Madras State who are stricter vegetarians than even Tamil Brahmins, were Jainas. [53]
  8. ↑ All of those who feared for their lives converted to Saivism (and not any other religious sect) adorning the sacred ash, 'throwing away their sacred threads', they assumed the identity of Saiva (nir-puci) vellalars or nir-puci-nayinars (the Jainas who smeared sacred ash). [54]
  9. ↑ Among the Tamil castes, both Karkattar Vellalas (Arunachalam, 1975) and Kondaikatti Vellalas (Barnett, 1970) have much the same profile as the KP (Kottai Pillaimar): both are non-cultivating land-holders, with a history of service to ruling dynasties. [56]

    Related Research Articles

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Tamils</span> Dravidian ethnolinguistic group

    The Tamils, also known as the Tamilar, are a Dravidian ethnolinguistic group who natively speak the Tamil language and trace their ancestry mainly to the southern part of the Indian subcontinent. The Tamil language is one of the longest-surviving classical languages, with over two thousand years of written history, dating back to the Sangam period. Tamils constitute about 5.7% of the Indian population and form the majority in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the union territory of Puducherry. They also form significant proportion of the population in Sri Lanka (15.3%), Malaysia (7%) and Singapore (5%). Tamils have migrated world-wide since the 19th century CE and a significant population exists in South Africa, Mauritius, Fiji, as well as other regions such as the Southeast Asia, Middle East, Caribbean and parts of the Western World.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Tamil Jain</span> Tamils who practice Jainism

    Tamil Jains are ethnic-Tamils from the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, who practice Jainism,. The Tamil Jain is a microcommunity of around 85,000 .They are predominantly scattered in northern Tamil Nadu, largely in the districts of Tiruvannamalai, Kanchipuram, Vellore, Villupuram, Ranipet and Kallakurichi. Early Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions in Tamil Nadu date to the third century BCE and describe the livelihoods of Tamil Jains. Samaṇar wrote much Tamil literature, including the important Sangam literature, such as the Nālaṭiyār, the Cilappatikaram, the Valayapathi and the Civaka Cintamani. Three of the five great epics of Tamil literature are attributed to Jains.

    Pillai or Pillay, meaning "Child of King" (Prince) or "Child", is a surname found among the Malayalam and Tamil-speaking people of India and Sri Lanka.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Pandya dynasty</span> Ancient Tamil dynasty of south India

    The Pandya dynasty, also referred to as the Pandyas of Madurai, was an ancient Tamil dynasty of South India, and among the four great kingdoms of Tamilakam, the other three being the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Cheras. Existing since at least the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE, the dynasty passed through two periods of imperial dominance, the 6th to 10th centuries CE, and under the 'Later Pandyas'. Under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I and Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I, the Pandyas ruled extensive territories including regions of present-day South India and northern Sri Lanka through vassal states subject to Madurai. Pandya dynasty is the longest ruling dynasty in the world.


    Mudaliar is a Tamil title and surname. As title, it was historically given to high-ranking officers, administrators and their descendants during the rule of Imperial Cholas. The surname is most prevalent among Tamils from Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. Descendants of Tamil migrants also bears variants of the name in countries such as South Africa, and elsewhere in the Tamil diaspora. List of Mudaliars

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Karikala</span> Historical Chola king who ruled over southern India

    Karikala, often referred to as Karikala the Great, was a Tamil Emperor of the Early Cholas of the Chola dynasty who ruled ancient Tamilakam from Uraiyur. He is credited with the construction of the flood banks of the river Kaveri and conquest of Tamilakam, Andhra and Sri Lanka. He is recognised as the greatest of the Early Cholas. In Thiruvalangadu plates of Rajendra Chola I, Medieval Tamil Cholas listed Karikala Chola as one of their ancestors.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Arumuka Navalar</span> Sri Lankan Shaivism and Tamil language scholar, reformer, revivalist

    Arumuka Navalar was a Sri Lankan Shaivite Tamil language scholar and a religious reformer who was central in reviving native Hindu Tamil traditions in Sri Lanka and India.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Tamilakam</span> Geographical region inhabited by the ancient Tamil people

    Tamilakam was the geographical region inhabited by the ancient Tamil people, covering the southernmost region of the Indian subcontinent. Tamilakam covered today's Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry, Lakshadweep and southern parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Traditional accounts and the Tolkāppiyam referred to these territories as a single cultural area, where Tamil was the natural language and permeated the culture of all its inhabitants. The ancient Tamil country was divided into kingdoms. The best known among them were the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyans and Pallavas. During the Sangam period, Tamil culture began to spread outside Tamilakam. Ancient Tamil settlements were also established in Sri Lanka and the Maldives (Giravarus), prior to the migration of Prakrit speakers.

    Kongu Vellalar is a community found in the Kongu region of Tamil Nadu, India.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Chola Empire</span> Medieval Indian empire (848–1279)

    The Chola Empire, which is often referred to as the Imperial Cholas, was a medieval thalassocratic empire based in southern India that was ruled by the Chola dynasty, and comprised overseas dominions, protectorates and spheres of influence in southeast Asia.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Tamil Nadu</span>

    The region of Tamil Nadu in the southeast of modern India, shows evidence of having had continuous human habitation from 15,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE. Throughout its history, spanning the early Upper Paleolithic age to modern times, this region has coexisted with various external cultures.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Velir</span> Royal house of Yadu dynasty

    The Velir were a royal house of minor dynastic kings and aristocratic chieftains in Tamilakam in the early historic period of South India. They had close relations with Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers through ruling and coronation rights. Medieval inscriptions and Sangam literature claim that they belong to the Yadu dynasty. Velir may refer to master of land.

    Thuluva Vellalar, also known as Agamudaya Mudaliar or Arcot Mudaliars, is a caste found in northern Tamil Nadu, southern Andhra Pradesh and southern Karnataka. They were an elite and dominant land-owning community.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Irunkōvēl</span> Title of the Irunkōvēl line of Yadu Velir kings

    Irunkōvēl, also known as Irungkōvēl, Irukkuvēl, and Ilangōvēlir, was a title of the Irunkōvēl line of Velir kings. The Irunkovel line of kings ruled over Konadu identified with the Kodumbalur and surrounding areas in ancient Tamilakkam. They trace their lineage to the clan of Krishna; one of the inscriptions at Kodumbalur belonging to one of the kings in the Irunkovel line, namely Tennavan Irunkōvēl alias Maravan Bhutiyar. They belong to Kallar family, K. A. Nilakanta Sastri mentions in his study.

    The Mutharaiyar was a south Indian dynasty that ruled as kings of Thanjavur, Sivaganga, Trichy, Pudukottai, Perambalur,Thiruvarur regions between 600 and 850 CE.

    Sri Lankan Paraiyar is a Tamil caste found in northern and eastern Sri Lanka. They are traditional parai-drummers who were also involved in weaving and scavenging.

    Isai Velalar is a community found in India in Tamil Nadu. They are traditionally involved as performers of classical dance and music in Hindu temples and courts of the patrons. The term "Isai Velalar" is a recent community identity, people of minstrel occupation from various castes such as, Melakkarar, Nayanakkarar and Nattuvanar come under this term.

    Thondaimandala Vellalar is a high-ranking subcaste of the Vellalar caste in the state of Tamil Nadu, India who tend, to adopt the title of Mudaliar and they were traditional "landlords and officials of the state class" described by the anthropologist Kathleen Gough. They are a closely knit community and follow the Vegetarian diet. Thondaimandalam Mudaliars / Vellalars are progressive and prosperous in the society and they are remarkably advanced in the matter of education

    Kondaikatti Velaalar or Thondaimandala Mudaliar is a Tamil caste in south India. Historically, they were a caste of non-cultivating land-holders and some of them were administrators under various south Indian dynasties. Their original homeland was Thondaimandalam and from there they spread to other areas in south India and northeastern parts of Sri Lanka. Since they historically used the Mudaliar title, they are sometimes referred to as Thondaimandala Mudaliar. However, Kathleen Gough considers them to be a separate subcaste of the Thondaimandala Mudali, as does Susan Neild.

    Kodikaal Vellalar is a subcaste of Vellalar from Indian state of Tamil Nadu. They are predominantly wealthy Landlords, Agriculturalists, Warriors and Village Administrators.

    References

    1. 1 2 R. Umamaheshwari (2018). Reading History with the Tamil Jainas. A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation. Volume 22 of Sophia Studies in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Traditions and Cultures. Springer. p. 250.
    2. ↑ Rowena Robinson (2003). Christians of India. SAGE Publications. p. 81.
    3. ↑ "Vellala | Encyclopedia.com". encyclopedia.com.
    4. ↑ Orr, L.C. (2000). Donors, Devotees, and Daughters of God: Temple Women in Medieval Tamilnadu. South Asia Research. Oxford University Press. p. 209. ISBN   978-0-19-535672-4 . Retrieved 29 March 2023.
    5. ↑ Peterson, I.V. (2014). Poems to Siva: The Hymns of the Tamil Saints. Princeton Library of Asian Translations. Princeton University Press. p. 355. ISBN   978-1-4008-6006-7 . Retrieved 29 March 2023.
    6. 1 2 P. R. G. Mathur (1994). Applied Anthropology and Challenges of Development in India. Punthi-Pustak. p. 152.
    7. ↑ André Béteille (2012). Caste, Class and Power: Changing Patterns of Stratification in a Tanjore Village. Oxford University Press. p. 86.
    8. ↑ D. Tyagi; K. K. Bhattacharya; S. S. Datta Chaudhuri; D. Xaviour, eds. (2012). Nutritional Status of Indian Population: Southern region. Anthropological Survey of India, Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Department of Culture, Government of India. p. 243.
    9. 1 2 Derges, Jane (2013). Ritual and Recovery in Post-Conflict Sri Lanka. Routledge. p. 77. ISBN   978-1136214882.
    10. ↑ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2017). Historical Dictionary of the Tamils. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 390. ISBN   978-1-53810-686-0.
    11. 1 2 Dev Nathan (1997). From Tribe to Caste. Indian Institute of Advanced Study. p. 233.
    12. ↑ M. D. Raghavan (1971). Tamil Culture in Ceylon: A General Introduction. Kalai Nilayam. p. 136.
    13. ↑ Venkatasubramanian, T. K. (1993). Societas to Civitas: evolution of political society in South India: pre-Pallavan Tamil̤akam. Kalinga Publications. p. 64. ISBN   9788185163420.
    14. ↑ Iravatham Mahadevan. "Meluhha and Agastya: Alpha and Omega of the Indus Script" (PDF). p. 16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2011. The Ventar-Velir-Velalar groups constituted the ruling and land-owning classes in the Tamil country since the beginning of recorded history
    15. ↑ André Wink (2002). Al-Hind: Early medieval India and the expansion of Islam, 7th-11th centuries. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 321. ISBN   9004092498. Not only were the Vellalas the landowning communities of South India,...
    16. 1 2 Gough, Kathleen (2008). Rural Society in Southeast India. Cambridge University Press. p. 29. ISBN   9780521040198.
    17. ↑ Ka. Ta Tirunāvukkaracu (1994). Chieftains of the Sangam Age. International Institute of Tamil Studies. p. 33.
    18. ↑ C. Sivaratnam (1964). An Outline of the Cultural History and Principles of Hinduism. Stangard Printers. p. 269.
    19. ↑ D. Devakunjari (1979). Madurai Through the Ages From the Earliest Times to 1801 A.D. Publisher: Society for Archaeological, Historical, and Epigraphical Research. p. 72.
    20. ↑ Chakrabarty, D.K. (2010). The Geopolitical Orbits of Ancient India: The Geographical Frames of the Ancient Indian Dynasties. OUP India. p. 84. ISBN   978-0-19-908832-4 . Retrieved 16 January 2023.
    21. ↑ N. Subrahmanian (1993). Social and Cultural History of Tamilnad: To A.D. 1336. Ennes. p. 67.
    22. ↑ K. A. NILAKANTA SASTRI, M.A., Emeritus Professor of Indian History and Archaeology, University of Madras. Professor of Indology. University of Mysore. (1955). The Colas, Second Edition. G. S. Press, Madras. p. 108.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    23. ↑ Thomas Oberlies, Richard Pischel (2001). Pāli, A Grammar of the Language of the Theravāda Tipiṭaka. Walter de Gruyter. p. 88.
    24. ↑ K. R. Srinivasan (1979). Temples of South India. National Book Trust. p. 8.
    25. ↑ Vijaya Laxmi Singh (2005). Mathurā.The Settlement Pattern and Cultural Profile of an Early Historical City. Sundeep Prakashan. p. 121.
    26. ↑ R. Leela Devi. History of Kerala. Vidyarthi Mithram Press & Book Depot. p. 117.
    27. ↑ Burton Stein (1994). Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India. Oxford University Press. p. 350.
    28. ↑ Raj Kumar (2008). Encyclopaedia of Untouchables Ancient, Medieval and Modern. Kalpaz Publications. p. 181.
    29. ↑ Indu Banga, ed. (1991). The City in Indian History. Urban Demography, Society, and Politics. South Asia Publications. p. 61.
    30. ↑ P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar (1993). South Indian Shrines. Asian Educational Services. p. 53.
    31. ↑ T.A. Society (Tiruchchirāppalli, India) (1986). The Tamilian Antiquary Volume 1, Issue 5. Asian Educational Services. p. 28.
    32. ↑ M. Arokiaswami. The Early History of the Vellar Basin, with Special Reference to the Irukkuvels of Kodumbalur. A Study in Vellala Origin and Early History. Amudha Nilayam. p. 28.
    33. ↑ M. Arokiaswami. The Early History of the Vellar Basin, with Special Reference to the Irukkuvels of Kodumbalur. A Study in Vellala Origin and Early History. Amudha Nilayam. p. 29.
    34. ↑ F. H. Gravely (2002). The Gopuras of Thiruvannamalai. Commissioner of Museums, Government of Tamil Nadu. p. 2.
    35. ↑ B. Sheikh Ali (1990). H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy (ed.). Essays on Indian History and Culture. Felicitation Volume in Honour of Professor B. Sheik Ali. Mittal Publications. pp. 105–107.
    36. ↑ Burton Stein (1994). Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India. Oxford University Press. pp. 190–191.
    37. ↑ Gurcharn Singh Sandhu (2003). A Military History of Medieval India. Vision Books. p. 208.
    38. ↑ École pratique des hautes études (France). Section des sciences économiques et sociales, University of Oxford. Institute of Social Anthropology, Research Centre on Social and Economic Development in Asia (1995). Contributions to Indian Sociology Volumes 29-30 of Contributions to Indian Sociology: Occasional Studies. Mouton. p. 265.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    39. ↑ Raj Kumar (2008). Encyclopaedia of Untouchables Ancient, Medieval and Modern. Gyan Publishing House. p. 179.
    40. ↑ K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, M.A., Professor of Indian History and Archaeology University of Madras (1937). The Colas. Thompson & Co., Ltd., Printers, Madras. p. 11.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    41. ↑ Keith E. Yandell Keith E. Yandell, John J. Paul (2013). Religion and Public Culture: Encounters and Identities in Modern South India. Routledge. p. 249.
    42. ↑ Professor of Asian History Hermann Kulke, Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Psychology Press. p. 143.
    43. ↑ Muthusamy Govindasamy (1977). A Survey of the Sources for the History of Tamil Literature. Annamalai University. p. 135.
    44. ↑ C. Chandramouli (2003). Temples of Tamilnadu Kancheepuram District, Volume 1. Controller of Publications. p. 54.
    45. ↑ Balasubrahmanyam Venkataraman (1994). Tillai and Nataraja. Mudgala Trust. p. 65.
    46. ↑ B. Natarajan (1974). The City of the Cosmic Dance: Chidambaram. Orient Longman. p. 32.
    47. ↑ Caṇmukam Meyyappan̲ (1992). Chidambaram Golden Temple. Manivasagar Pathippagam. p. 13.
    48. ↑ Madabhushini Narasimhacharya (2004). Sri Ramanuja. Makers of Indian literature. Sahitya Akademi. p. 25.
    49. ↑ Fernando, A. Denis N. (1987). "PENINSULAR JAFFNA FROM ANCIENT TO MEDIEVAL TIMES: Its Significant Historical and Settlement Aspects". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka. 32: 84. JSTOR   23731055.
    50. ↑ Holt, John (2011). The Sri Lanka Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press. p. 84. ISBN   978-0822349822.
    51. ↑ Gerharz, Eva (3 April 2014). The Politics of Reconstruction and Development in Sri Lanka: Transnational Commitments to Social Change. Routledge. p. 73. ISBN   9781317692799.
    52. ↑ Welhengama, Gnanapala; Pillay, Nirmala (2014). The Rise of Tamil Separatism in Sri Lanka: From Communalism to Secession. Routledge. p. 168. ISBN   9781135119713.
    53. ↑ Andhra University (1972). Religion and Politics in Medieval South India. Papers of a Seminar Held by the Institute of Asian Studies and Andhra University. Institute of Asian Studies. p. 15.
    54. 1 2 R. Umamaheshwari (2018). Reading History with the Tamil Jainas. A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation. Volume 22 of Sophia Studies in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Traditions and Cultures. Springer. p. 222.
    55. ↑ R. Umamaheshwari (2018). Reading History with the Tamil Jainas. A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation. Volume 22 of Sophia Studies in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Traditions and Cultures. Springer. p. 223.
    56. ↑ Karuna Chanana, Maithreyi Krishna Raj, ed. (1989). Gender and the Household Domain. Social and Cultural Dimensions. Sage Publications. p. 92.
    57. ↑ Kamala Ganesh (1993). Boundary Walls. Caste and Women in a Tamil Community. Hindustan Publishing Corporation. p. 27.
    58. ↑ Govind Sadashiv Ghurye (1969). Caste and Race in India. Popular Prakashan. p. 209.
    59. ↑ A. Aiyappan, K. Mahadevan (1988). Population and Social Change in an Indian Village. Quarter Century of Development in Managadu [i.e. Mangadu] Village, Tamil Nadu. Mittal Publications. p. 42.
    60. ↑ Indira Viswanathan Peterson (2014). Poems to Siva The Hymns of the Tamil Saints. Princeton University Press. p. 45,54.
    61. ↑ Madras (India : State). Record Office (1957), Tanjore District Handbook (in Slovenian), Superintendent Government Press, p. 128, retrieved 4 January 2023
    62. ↑ Rajaraman, P. (1988), The Justice Party: A Historical Perspective, 1916-37, Poompozhil Publishers, p. 17, retrieved 4 January 2023
    63. ↑ Gough, K. (1978), Dravidian Kinship and Modes of Production, Publication (Indian Council of Social Science Research), Indian Council of Social Science Research, p. 10, retrieved 4 January 2023
    64. ↑ Indira Viswanathan Peterson (2014). Poems to Siva The Hymns of the Tamil Saints. Princeton University Press. pp. 54–55.
    65. ↑ Moffatt, Michael (2015). An Untouchable Community in South India: Structure and Consensus. Princeton University Press. p. 37. ISBN   978-1-40087-036-3.

    Further reading

    This page is based on this Wikipedia article
    Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
    Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.