Velir

Last updated

Velir
paari mullaikkut teeriitl (pttimm).JPG
A statue of the Sangam period Velir king
Country India
Current region South India
TitlesSatyaputra
Connected families Ay
Athiyamān
Irunkōvēl
Ilanji Vel
Malayamān
Nanan
Vēl Pāri
Vel Avi Pekan

The Velir [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] were a royal house of minor dynastic kings and aristocratic chieftains in Tamilakam in the early historic period of South India. [6] They had close relations with Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers through ruling and coronation rights. [7] [8] [9] Medieval inscriptions and Sangam literature claim that they belong to the Yadu dynasty. [10] [11] [12] . Velir may refer to master of land. [13]

Contents

Origin

A 12th-century statue of Agastya. The Hindu Sage Agastya.jpg
A 12th-century statue of Agastya.

The Purananuru, one of the Eight Anthologies of Sangam literature, praises King Irunkōvēl, a 49th generation descendant of the Vēlir clan whose ancestors appeared from the pitcher (தடவு) of a Northern sage (Agastya), and said to have ruled Thuvarai (Dvārakā) with a fort containing tall huge walls made of bronze. [14] According to a commentary on Tholkappiyam , the earliest long work of Tamil literature, eighteen clans of the Velirs came from the city of Tuvarapati under the leadership of the sage Agastya. [6] [15] [16] The legend goes that all the gods and sages went to the Himalayas to attend the marriage of Siva with Parvati due to which the earth started tilting to one side. Agastya was then requested to proceed south to restore the balance. On his way south, Agastya married Lopamudra and is said to have brought with him sage Jamadagni's son Trnadhumagni or Tholkappiyar, the author of Tamil grammar, and eighteen members of the Vrishni family along with eighteen crore Velir and Aruvalar. [17] It has been suggested by some like Thapar and Champakalakshmi, that the ancestors of the Velir may have been related to the Yadava of Dvaraka and the inhabitants of the post Harappan Chacolithic Black and Red ware sites. According to Thapar, the Yadava may have belonged to a non Indo-Aryan language group. [15] They eventually reached Tamraparni, and as the Velir-Perumakan group, cultivated its ancient society as a political, sociocultural and economic structure in South India and Sri Lanka. [18]

Historian R._Nagaswamy writes that quite a number of these velirs were indigenous and natives of tamil country but some of the velirs seem to have migrated from dvaraka. [19]

The Irunkōvēl kings trace their lineage to the clan of Krishna; one of the inscriptions at Kodumbalur belonging to one of the kings in the Irunkovel line, namely Tennavan Irunkōvēl, declares that he belonged to the Kshatriya dynasty which is descended from Yadu (legendary king). [12] [20] The Moovar Koil record of Irukkuvel chief Boothi Vikramakesari lauds his father, Samarabirama, as Yadu-vamsa-ketu (Banner of the Yadu race). [12] [21] Historians consider the Ay velirs originated from the pastoralists of Ayars and they gained preeminence at an early stage in Tamil history. [22] [23] [24]

History

The Velir were prominent in the Sangam period of Tamil polity, economy, and society. They are traced to the Yadavas (Yadu descent) of Dvaraka and linked up with all important dynasties of South India including the Chalukyas, Hoysalas, and Andhras. [25] In Sangam literature, they are portrayed as independent chieftains who ruled in bordering areas of three major ruling dynasties, had considerable collective power and marriage alliances with Three Crowned Kings. [26] "Karmandala sathakam" a 12th-century work states that the Velirs (The eighteen groups of Vellalars) who ruled Karmandalam (Regions of Southern Karnataka and North Tamil Nadu) were branched-off from: [27]

While most of the rulers are substantiated by epigraphs and literatures, some of their history of ruling some dynasties is not recorded.

Also, some of the medieval dynasties of the western half of the peninsula claim to be descended from Yadhavas lineage and the Ay chiefs of Ay dynasty of the ninth century A.D. claim to be the Vrishni-kula as also the Mushika kings who link themselves with Haihaya origins. [32] The Periya Puranam describes about a Haiheya clan king Eyarkon Kalikama Nayanar, he was a Vellalar saint and Commander-in-chief of the Chola army. [33] [34] The Ay velir chieftains, who settled down in Ay county (near Kanyakumari), were quite prominent in Tamil Nadu during the sangam age. [35]

The Chalukyas and Kadambas belonging to Manavya gotra as being the descendants of the original ancestress Hariti. [36] The Karmandala Satakam states that the Velirs of karmandalam belong to the same "Manavya" Gotra. [27] The Chalukya kings were called Velpularasar and Velkulattarasar by some communities, that is kings over Vel country (pula means region or country). [37] [38] Later day references to them in Choļa inscriptions puts the Chalukyas under the Velir community ruling in Deccan. [31]

Tamilakam in the Sangam Period. South India in Sangam Period.jpg
Tamilakam in the Sangam Period .

The Ay Vels were one such Velir group that ruled the territory in and around Venad during the Sangam period. The word Venad is derived from Vel -nadu, that is the country ruled by Vel chieftains. [39] We know of a queen of Vikramaditya Varaguna, an Ay king of 9th century who is referred to as Murugan Chenthi and as Aykula Mahadevi from inscriptions. Her father, an Ay chief called Chathan Murugan is described as a Vennir Vellala that is a Vellala by birth, [40] in the Huzur plates of king Karunandakkan, the predecessor of Vikramaditya Varaguna. [41]

The Irunkōvēl lines of Velir kings are considered to be of the same stock as the Hoysalas as in one of the Sangam poems, the ancestor of the Irungovel chieftain is said to have ruled the fortified city of Tuvarai. This city is identified with the Hoysala capital Dwarasamudra by some historians. [42] Also, the legend of the chief killing a tiger (Pulikadimal) has a striking resemblance to the origin legend of the Hoysalas where "sala" kills the tiger to save a sage. [43] As per historian Arokiaswami, the Hoysala title "Ballala" is only a variant of the Tamil word "Vellala". [44] The Hoysala king Veera Ballala III is even now locally known as the "Vellala Maharaja" in Thiruvannamalai, the town that served as their capital in 14th century. [45]

The Irungovel chieftains were related to the Cholas through matrimony. [46] [47] These princes assumed both the Chola and Irungovel titles like for example there was one Adavallan Gangaikonda Cholan alias Irungolan during the time of Kulottunga I and then there was a certain Sendamangalam Udaiyan Araiyan Edirili Cholan alias Irungolan during the reign of Kulottunga III. [48]

Kaluvul was a velir chieftain of Kamur who fought against the chera supremacy. [49] [50] Perum chera irumporai along with fourteen chieftains attacked kamur but perum chera irumporai was impressed with Kaluvuls resistance in battle field and let him rule kamur and accepted friendship from him. [51] .Some of the velirs under Kaluvul joined the chera after the defeat. [52]

Sangam literature

The Purananuru, one of the Eight Anthologies of Sangam literature, praises King Irunkōvēl, a 49th generation descendant of the Vēlir clan whose ancestors appeared from the pitcher (தடவு) of a Northern sage (Agastya), and said to have ruled Thuvarai (Dvārakā) with a fort containing tall huge walls made of bronze. [14]

Velir chiefs

Moovar Koil Temple Complex built by Irunkovel chieftain Boothi Vikramakesari Moovar Koil Temple.jpg
Moovar Koil Temple Complex built by Irunkovel chieftain Boothi Vikramakesari

Athiyamān Nedumān Añci and his son Ezhini, were Athiyamān chieftains, based in Tagadur (present day village located in Dharmapuri district). They were contemporaries of Auvaiyar. The Sangam poem "Thagadur yathirai", now lost, was written about his battle with the Chera king. Another Velir was Irunkōvēl who ruled over Konaadu, the area in and around Pudukottai, with their capital in Kodumbalur. [53] Nannan was another Velir chieftain who hailed from Tulu Nadu. [54] Yet another Velir chief was Pekan of the Vel Avi family who ruled over Pothini, the modern Palani near Madurai.[ citation needed ] Other ancient Velir chiefs of repute include Alumbil Vel, Alandur Vel, Ilanji Vel and Nangur Vel. [55]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tamils</span> Dravidian ethnolinguistic group

The Tamil people, also known as Tamilar, Tamilians, or simply Tamils, are a Dravidian ethnolinguistic group who natively speak the Tamil language and trace their ancestry mainly to India's southern state of Tamil Nadu, the union territory of Puducherry, and to Sri Lanka. The Tamil language is one of the world's longest-surviving classical languages, with over 2000 years of Tamil literature, including the Sangam poems, which were composed between 300 BCE and 300 CE. People who speak Tamil as their mother tongue and are born in Tamil clans are considered Tamils.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pandya dynasty</span> Ancient Tamil dynasty of south India

The Pandyan dynasty, also referred to as the Pandyas of Madurai, was an ancient Tamil dynasty of South India, and among the four great kingdoms of Tamilakam, the other three being the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Cheras. Existing since at least the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE, the dynasty passed through two periods of imperial dominance, the 6th to 10th centuries CE, and under the 'Later Pandyas'. Under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I and Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I, the Pandyas ruled extensive territories including regions of present-day South India and northern Sri Lanka through vassal states subject to Madurai.

Kaarkaathaar is a subcaste of Vellalar Hindu caste in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kongu Nadu</span> Geographical region in India

Kongu Nadu, also known by various names such as Kongu Mandalam and Kongu belt, is a geographical region comprising present day parts of western Tamil Nadu, southeastern Karnataka and eastern Kerala. In the ancient Tamilakam, it was the seat of the Chera kings, bounded on the east by Tondai Nadu, on the south-east by Chola Nadu and on the south by Pandya Nadu regions.

Venad was a medieval kingdom lying between the Western Ghat mountains and the Arabian Sea on the south-western tip of India with its headquarters at the port city of Kollam/Quilon. It was one of the major principalities of Kerala, along with kingdoms of Kannur (Kolathunadu), Kozhikode (Nediyiruppu), and Kochi (Perumpadappu) in medieval and early modern period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chera dynasty</span> 300s BCE–1100s CE dynasty in ancient South India

The Chera dynasty, was a Sangam age dynasty who unified various regions of the western coast and western ghats in southern India to form the early Chera empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chola dynasty</span> Tamil dynasty of South India

The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty originating from southern India. At its height, it ruled over an expansive maritime empire known as the Chola empire. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ashoka of the Maurya empire. The Chola empire was at its peak and achieved imperialism under the Medieval Cholas in the mid-9th century CE. As one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, along with the Chera and Pandya, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territories until the 13th century CE.

Vellalar is a group of castes in the Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and northeastern parts of Sri Lanka. The Vellalar are members of several endogamous castes such as the numerically strong Arunattu Vellalar, Chozhia Vellalar, Karkarthar Vellalar, Kongu Vellalar, Thuluva Vellalar and Sri Lankan Vellalar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sangam period</span> Period in the history of ancient southern India

The Sangam period or age, particularly referring to the third Sangam period, is the period of the history of ancient Tamil Nadu and Kerala, and parts of Sri Lanka dating back to c.6th century BCE. It was named after the legendary Sangam academies of poets and scholars centered in the city of Madurai which are believed to be mythical.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tamilakam</span> Geographical region inhabited by the ancient Tamil people

Tamilakam is the geographical region inhabited by the ancient Tamil people, covering the southernmost region of the Indian subcontinent. Tamilakam covered today's Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry, Lakshadweep and southern parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Traditional accounts and the Tolkāppiyam referred to these territories as a single cultural area, where Tamil was the natural language and permeated the culture of all its inhabitants. The ancient Tamil country was divided into kingdoms. The best known among them were the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyans and Pallavas. During the Sangam period, Tamil culture began to spread outside Tamilakam. Ancient Tamil settlements were also established in Sri Lanka and the Maldives (Giravarus).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mushika dynasty</span> Malayalam dynasty

Mushika dynasty, also spelled Mushaka, was a minor dynastic power that held sway over the region in and around Mount Ezhi (Ezhimala) in present-day North Malabar, Kerala, India. The country of the Mushikas, ruled by an ancient lineage of the Hehaya clan of the same name, appears in early historic (pre-Pallava) south India and it is believed that Mushika dynasty has their descents from Heheya Kingdom. Early Tamil poems contain several references to the exploits of Nannan of Ezhimalai. Nannan was known as a great enemy of the pre-Pallava Chera chieftains. The clan also had matrimonial alliances with the Chera, Pandya and Chola chieftains. The Kolathunadu (Kannur) Kingdom, which was the descendant of Mushika dynasty, at the peak of its power, reportedly extended from Netravati River (Mangalore) in the north to Korapuzha (Kozhikode) in the south with Arabian Sea on the west and Kodagu hills on the eastern boundary, also including the isolated islands of Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Early Cholas</span> One of three ancient Tamil kingdoms

The Early Cholas were a Tamil kingdom of the Chola Dynasty - pre and post Sangam period. It was one of the three main kingdoms of Tamilakam. Their early capitals were Urayur or Tiruchirapalli and Kaveripattinam. Along with Pandyas and Cheras, Chola history goes back to the period when written records were scarce.

Konar is Hindu caste found in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. They are traditionally a pastoral community involved in cattle herding and cultivation. They are a part of the Yadav community. They also known as Ayar and Idaiyar, and appear in the ancient Sangam literature as occupants of the Mullai .Historically some of them have held positions such as kings and chieftains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ay dynasty</span> Former dynasty of India

Ay was a dynasty which controlled the south-western tip of the Indian peninsula, from the early historic period up to the medieval period.The clan traditionally held sway over the port of Vizhinjam, the fertile region of Nanjinad, and southern parts of the spice-producing Western Ghat mountains. The dynasty was also known as Kupaka in medieval period.

Thuluva Vellalar, also known as Agamudaya Mudaliars and Arcot Mudaliars, is a caste found in northern Tamil Nadu, southern Andhra Pradesh and southern Karnataka. They were originally significant landowners.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Athiyamān</span>

Atiyamāṉ were a royal Velir dynasty. These king-chiefs ruled from their capital Tagadur from at least the 3rd century BCE. The royal house was one of the four kingdoms of Tamilakam, ruling parts of the Kongu Nadu. They were surrounded by the Cheras to the west and the Pandyas and Cholas to the east.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Irunkōvēl</span> Title of the Irunkōvēl line of Yadu Velir kings

Irunkōvēl, also known as Irungkōvēl, Irukkuvēl, and Ilangōvēlir, was a title of the Irunkōvēl line of Velir kings. The Irunkovel line of kings ruled over Konadu identified with the Kodumbalur and surrounding areas in ancient Tamilakkam. They trace their lineage to the clan of Krishna; one of the inscriptions at Kodumbalur belonging to one of the kings in the Irunkovel line, namely Tennavan Irunkōvēl alias Maravan Bhutiyar, declares that he belonged to the kshatriya dynasty which is descended from Yadu. The Moovar Koil record of Irukkuvel chief Boothi Vikramakesari lauds his father, Samarabirama, as Yadu-vamsa-ketu.

Idangazhi (Idangali), also known as Idangazhi Nayanar, Idangaliyar (Idankaliyar) was a Nayanar saint, venerated in the Hindu sect of Shaivism. He is generally counted as the fifty-fourth in the list of 63 Nayanars. He was an Irukku Velir chieftain, who is described to not only have pardoned a devotee of the god Shiva, who stole from the royal granaries, but also distributed rice to devotees of Shiva.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tamil dynasties</span> Ancient kingdoms in South Asia

Tamil dynasties are the kingdoms who ruled over present day Tamil Nadu, Sri Lanka, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Odisha. These include the Pallavas, the Pandyas, the Cholas and the Cheras.

Kodikaal Vellalar is a subcaste of Vellalar from Indian state of Tamil Nadu. They are predominantly wealthy Landlords, Agriculturalists, Warriors and Village Administrators.

References

    1. ↑ Pruthi, R.; Sharma, B.R. (1995). Buddhism, Jainism and Women. Encyclopaedia of women society and culture series. Anmol Publications. p. 99. ISBN   978-81-7488-085-7.
    2. ↑ Sivaratnam, C. (1964). An Outline of the Cultural History and Principles of Hinduism. Stangard Printers. p. 36. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    3. ↑ Chakravarti, A. (1953). Tirukkural (in Lithuanian). Diocesan Press. p. 25.
    4. ↑ Orr, L.C. (2000). Donors, Devotees, and Daughters of God: Temple Women in Medieval Tamilnadu. South Asia Research. Oxford University Press. p. 209. ISBN   978-0-19-535672-4 . Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    5. ↑ Iyer, L.A.K. (1968). Social History of Kerala: The Dravidians. Monographs on man in India. Book Centre Publications. p. 4. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    6. 1 2 Mahadevan, Iravatham (2009). "Meluhha and Agastya : Alpha and Omega of the Indus Script" (PDF). Chennai, India. p. 16. The story of the southern migration of the Vēḷir from Dvārakā under the leadership of Agastya is narrated by Naccinarkkiniyar in his commentary on Tolkāppiyam (pāyiram ; Poruḷ. 34). According to this legend, the gods congregated on Mount Meru as a result of which the earth tilted, lowering Meru and raising the southern quarter. The gods thereupon decided that Agastya was the best person to remedy this situation and requested him to proceed to the South. Agastya agreed and, on his way, visited Tuvarāpati' (Dvārakā) and led the descendants of neṭu-muṭi-an|n|al (Viṣṇu or Krṣṇa) including eighteen kings, eighteen families of the Vēḷir and the Aruvāḷar' to the south, where they settled down clearing the forests and cultivating the land.
    7. ↑ de Laet, S.J.; Herrmann, J. (1996). History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. History of Humanity. Routledge. p. 382. ISBN   978-92-3-102812-0 . Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    8. ↑ Singh, K.S.; Thirumalai, R.; Manoharan, S.; Anthropological Survey of India (1997). Tamil Nadu. People of India. Affiliated East-West Press [for] Anthropological Survey of India. p. 1647. ISBN   978-81-85938-88-2 . Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    9. ↑ Cuppiramaṇiyan̲, C.V.; Tirunāvukkaracu, K.T.; International Institute of Tamil Studies (1983). Historical Heritage of the Tamils. Publication (International Institute of Tamil Studies). International Institute of Tamil Studies. p. 269. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    10. ↑ Padmaja, T. (2001). Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu. Institute of Asian Studies. pp. 33–35. ISBN   9788170173984.
    11. ↑ van Bakel, M.; Hagesteijn, R.; van de Velde, P. (1994). Pivot politics: changing cultural identities in early state formation processes. Het Spinhuis. p. 175. ISBN   978-90-5589-007-1 . Retrieved 22 December 2022.
    12. 1 2 3 Ayyar, K.R.S.; Government Museum (Chennai, India) (2002). Inscriptions in the Pudukkóttai State. Inscriptions in the Pudukkóttai State. Commissioner of Museums, Government of Tamilnadu. p. 15. Retrieved 20 December 2022.
    13. ↑ R, Naga Swami (1980). Art And Culture Of Tamilnadu. Delhi Sundeep Prakashan. p. 12.
    14. 1 2 Hart, G.L.; Heifetz, H. (2002). The Four Hundred Songs of War and Wisdom: An Anthology of Poems from Classical Tamil, the Purananuru. Translations from the Asian Classics. Columbia University Press. p. 127. ISBN   978-0-231-51252-7 . Retrieved 16 May 2023.
    15. 1 2 Pivot politics: changing cultural identities in early state formation processes By M. van Bakel page 165: "The Velir were an instrusive group in South India... It is now suggested that (...) may have been associated with the Yadava of Dvaraka..."
    16. ↑ Romila Thapar. Ancient Indian Social History: Some Interpretations. Orient Blackswan, 1978 - India - 341 pages. p. 224.
    17. ↑ Ramchandra Narayan Dandekar. Insights into Hinduism. Ajanta Publications, 1979. p. 376.
    18. ↑ Thapar, Romila; Champakalakshmi, Radha; Gopal, Sarvepalli (1996). Tradition, Dissent and Ideology: Essays in Honour of Romila Thapar. Oxford University Press. p. 309. ISBN   9780195638677 . Retrieved 5 July 2019.
    19. ↑ R, Naga Swami (1980). Art And Culture Of Tamilnadu. Delhi Sundeep Prakashan. p. 12.
    20. ↑ India. Archæological Dept (1913). Epigraphia Indica. [Reports].: New imperial series (in Italian). p. 122. Retrieved 20 December 2022.
    21. ↑ Indica. Heras Institute of Indian History and Culture, St. Xavier's College. 1995. p. 93. Retrieved 20 December 2022.
    22. ↑ Padmaja, T. (2001). Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu. Institute of Asian Studies. pp. 33–34. ISBN   9788170173984.
    23. ↑ Environment, Development and Society in Contemporary India:An Introduction. Macmillan India. 2008. p. 23. ISBN   978-0-230-63530-2 . Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    24. ↑ Matlock, G. (2000). India Once Ruled the Americas!. iUniverse. p. 100. ISBN   978-0-595-13468-7 . Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    25. ↑ Nākacāmi, I. (1978). South Indian Studies. SAHER pub (in German). Society for Archaeological, Historical & Epigraphical Research. p. 51. Retrieved 22 December 2022.
    26. ↑ Ganesh, K. (1993). Boundary Walls: Caste and Women in a Tamil Community. Studies in sociology and social anthropology. Hindustan Publishing Corporation. p. 49. ISBN   978-81-7075-023-9 . Retrieved 20 December 2022.
    27. 1 2 Vijayalakshmi, Usha R (2010). "Karmandala Satakam: Politico-Socio-Cultural Analysis of Medieval Tamil Literature on the Vellala Community of South Karnataka". "Karmandala Satakam: Politico-Socio-Cultural Analysis of Medieval Tamil Literature on the Vellala Community of South Karnataka. 71: 430. JSTOR   44147510.
    28. ↑ Biodiversity Heritage Library (1909). Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Colombo Apothecaries Company. p. 21. Retrieved 22 December 2022.
    29. ↑ Nākacāmi, I., ed. (1997). Studies in South Indian History and Culture. V.R. Ramachandra Dikshitar Centenary Committee. p. 192. Retrieved 22 December 2022.
    30. ↑ Ali, B.S. (1972). The Hoysaḷa Dynasty (in Latin). Prasaranga, University of Mysore. p. 48. Retrieved 21 December 2022.
    31. 1 2 Prācī-jyoti Digest of Indological Studies volumes 16-17 (1984), p. 115
    32. ↑ Thapar, R. (1978). Ancient Indian Social History: Some Interpretations. Orient Longman. p. 224. ISBN   978-81-250-0808-8 . Retrieved 21 December 2022.
    33. ↑ Dehejia, Vidya (1988). Slaves of the Lord: The Path of the Tamil Saints. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 178. ISBN   978-8-12150-044-9.
    34. ↑ The Religion And Philosophy Of Tevaram With Special Reference To Nampi Arurar In Four Volumes: Rangaswamy, M. A. Dorai. 30 June 2015. Retrieved 22 December 2022.
    35. ↑ Padmaja, T. (2002). Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu. Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu (in Latin). Abhinav Publications. p. 127. ISBN   978-81-7017-398-4 . Retrieved 22 December 2022.
    36. ↑ Krishnarao, B. V. (1939). "The Origin and the Original Home of the Calukyas". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Indian History Congress. 3: 386–410. ISSN   2249-1937. JSTOR   44252388 . Retrieved 22 December 2022.
    37. ↑ Raj Kumar (2008). Encyclopaedia of Untouchables Ancient, Medieval and Modern. Gyan Publishing House. p. 179.
    38. ↑ K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (1937). The Colas. Thompson & Co., Ltd., Printers, Madras. p. 11.
    39. ↑ R. Leela Devi. History of Kerala. Vidyarthi Mithram Press & Book Depot. p. 117.
    40. ↑ Burton Stein (1994). Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India. Oxford University Press. p. 350.
    41. ↑ Raj Kumar (2008). Encyclopaedia of Untouchables Ancient, Medieval and Modern. Kalpaz Publications. p. 181.
    42. ↑ T.A. Society (Tiruchchirāppalli, India) (1986). The Tamilian Antiquary Volume 1, Issue 5. Asian Educational Services. p. 28.
    43. ↑ M. Arokiaswami. The Early History of the Vellar Basin, with Special Reference to the Irukkuvels of Kodumbalur. A Study in Vellala Origin and Early History. Amudha Nilayam. p. 28.
    44. ↑ M. Arokiaswami. The Early History of the Vellar Basin, with Special Reference to the Irukkuvels of Kodumbalur. A Study in Vellala Origin and Early History. Amudha Nilayam. p. 29.
    45. ↑ F. H. Gravely (2002). The Gopuras of Thiruvannamalai. Commissioner of Museums, Government of Tamil Nadu. p. 2.
    46. ↑ Indu Banga; Urban History Association of India; Nehru Memorial Museum and Library (1991). The City in Indian History: Urban Demography, Society, and Politics. South Asia Publications. p. 61. ISBN   978-0-945921-17-2 . Retrieved 20 December 2022.
    47. ↑ Tirumalai, R. (1994). Collected Papers: Studies in South Indian Epigraphy and History of Land Organisation, Development and Accounts and Select Chola, and Pandyan Townships. T.N.D.A. pub. Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamilnadu. p. 177. Retrieved 20 December 2022.
    48. ↑ Balasubrahmanyam, S.R.; Venkataraman, B.; Ramachandran, B. (1979). Later Chola Temples: Kulottunga I to Rajendra III (A.D. 1070-1280) (in Javanese). Mudgala Trust. p. 80. Retrieved 20 December 2022.
    49. ↑ V, Ramamurthy (2008). History of Kongu: Pre-historic period to 1300 A.D. International Society for the Investigation of Ancient Civilization. p. 104.
    50. ↑ C. E., Ramachandran (1974). Social and Cultural History of Tamilnad: To A.D. 1336. University of Madras. p. 50.
    51. ↑ N, Subrahmanian (2008). Social and Cultural History of Tamilnad: To A.D. 1336. Ennes. p. 42.
    52. ↑ Ci, Pālacuppiramaṇiyan̲ (2007). A Study of the Literature of the Cēra Country Upto 11th Century A.D. University of Madras. p. 29.
    53. ↑ Tirumalai, R. (1981). Studies in the History of Ancient Townships in Pudukkottai. Institute of Epigraphy, State Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu. p. 1.
    54. ↑ Rohan Peter, Utsav Manihara (2001). Culture of Creativity: Footprints of Indian Civilization, Volume 3 of Panorama of Indian Culture. Dominant Publishers and Distributors. p. 10. ISBN   8178880253.
    55. ↑ Seneviratne, Sudharshan (1994). "The Twilight of the Perumakan: South Indian Polity Restructured and Incorporated". In van Bakel, Martin; Hagesteijn, Renée; van de Velde, Piet (eds.). Pivot Politics: Changing Cultural Identities in Early State Formation Processes. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis. p. 172. ISBN   978-90-5589-007-1.
    This page is based on this Wikipedia article
    Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
    Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.