Waterborne disease and climate change

Last updated October 10, 2023

Climate change is expected to increase the severity of most meteorological conditions which will in turn increase the infection area and seasonal duration of waterborne diseases . Climate change, and its effects are already being seen around the globe in warmer water, drought, higher rainfall, and flooding. Related changes in waterborne diseases are already being documented globally and are expected to increase, not only in developing countries but also in already developed countries. Extreme precipitation, storm surges, and flooding are already on the rise due to climate change. These present a large risk to current system capacities and could lead to disruption or failure in the infrastructure. The current trend shows a positive correlation between waterborne diseases and meteorological conditions changing due to climate change.

Changes in precipitation and water cycle

Climate change is forecast to have substantial effects on the water cycle, with an increase in both frequency and intensity of droughts and heavy precipitation events.^[1] Heavy precipitation events are expected to also increase flood events in the future.^[2] Precipitation events are expected to increase in intensity, but lessen in amount and duration. This will cause an increase in heavy flooding events during the precipitation event and droughts in-between. There is also an expected increased contrast between the wet and dry regions and seasons globally. Due to the increasing temperature and change in precipitation events waterborne diseases are among the primary health impacts expected from the changing climate.^[3]

Water-borne diseases

Climate change is expected to have a major impact on waterborne diseases. These are diseases caused by a pathogen transmitted through water. The symptoms of waterborne diseases typically include diarrhea, fever and other flu-like symptoms, neurological disorders, and liver damage.^[1] Changes in climate have a large effect on the distribution of microbial species. These communities are very complex and can be extremely sensitive to external climate stimuli.^[4] One of the most commonly transmitted waterborne disease categories are the diarrhea diseases.^[1] These diseases are transmitted through unsafe drinking water or recreational water contact.^[2] Diarrheal diseases account for 10–12% of deaths in children under five, as the second leading cause of death in children this age. They are also the second leading cause of death in low and middle income countries. Diarrhea diseases account for an estimated 1.4–1.9 million deaths worldwide.^[3]

There is a very high risk of increase in waterborne diseases worldwide due to climate change, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).^[1]

Climate change effects on waterborne diseases

Temperature

The average global temperature is rising and is expected to continue to rise at a rapid rate. High temperatures can alter the survival, replication, and virulence of a pathogen.^[1] Higher temperatures can also increase the pathogen yields in animal reservoirs. During the warmer summer months an increase in yield of bacteria from drinking water delivery systems has been recorded. During times of warmer temperatures water consumption rates are also typically higher. These together increase the probability of pathogen ingestion and infection.^[3] With the known increase in global temperature averages and the positive association between temperature and waterborne diseases, especially diarrheal diseases, the number of waterborne outbreaks will most likely increase. In hotter regions, especially ones with low water supply already, there will be an increase in amount of runoff water collected and reused. This could lead to an increase in consumption of contaminated water.^[4] With an increase in not only temperature, but also higher nutrient concentrations due to runoff there will be an increase in cyanobacterial blooms.^[2]

Rainfall and flooding

Climate change has been modeled to increase the intensity of precipitation events leading to an increase in major flooding events. Studies have shown an increase in gastrointestinal and diarrheal diseases associated with major precipitation events and increased temperature.^[4] Due to heavy rainfall events leading to increased runoff pathogens become mobilized and compromise water and sanitation infrastructure.^[1] Flooding can displace populations and can lead to a variety of impacts on health. Pathogens can come from a variety of locations including human and/ or animal excrement that are present in soils or fertilizer runoff from farms. Heavy rainfall leads to the resuspension of pathogens in soils leading to the contamination of groundwater. The rainfall mobilizes these pathogens and transports them into waterways making it more likely for individuals to be exposed to the pathogen.^[3] Heavy rainfall leads to an overflow of the storm drains, which are sometimes combined with the sewage system. In these areas contaminated water can be mixed into the rivers. There are also reports of floodwaters leading to the contamination of sources of underground drinking water.^[2] Between 20 and 40% of outbreaks including both ground and surface water were associated with extreme precipitation events.^[4] Typically flooding is associated as a risk of increased waterborne diseases more so in developing countries, but can affect the developed world in places where water sources are already compromised.^[2] In the United States there are as many as 900,000 cases and 900 deaths annually from waterborne diseases that have been linked to both droughts and flooding.^[4]

Droughts

The amount of water within the global water cycle is constant, the amount of water evaporated from waterbodies has to come back down as precipitation. If climate change is causing precipitation events to increase in intensity then either the duration of the events has to be shorter, there has to be more time in between events, or both. There is also the possibility of precipitation events occurring less often in one area and becoming stronger in another. This will cause droughts in areas with less precipitation, or longer periods of time between precipitation events. Droughts lead to an increase in sediment and contaminant levels in water bodies as water is evaporated out. This causes pathogens to concentrate in limited water supplies. Droughts will also cause more people to collect rain water and runoff, and in turn pathogens within the water increasing the risk of exposure.^[4]

Examples

Vibrio infections

In the United States approximately 80,000 people are infected and 100 die from vibriosis yearly. Vibrio infections are caused by consuming raw or undercooked seafood, or by exposing an open wound to contaminated sea water. Vibrio infections are most likely to occur during the warm season, May through October.^[5] Vibrio illnesses are increasing worldwide, in the United States it has increased by an estimated 41% between 1996 and 2005. Vibrio infections are recently being reported where historically it did not occur. The warming climate seems to be playing a substantial role in the increase in cases and area of occurrence.^[4]

Nontuberculous mycobacteria

Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) is a lung disease that mainly affects people with an underlying lung disease or a weakened immune system. The organisms that cause NTM are commonly found in soil and water. Currently in the United States there are more than 86,000 people infected with NTM.^[6] Climate change causes an increase in natural disasters which cause a spread of the NTM pathogen. In the United States, states with a higher occurrence of natural disasters also show a higher prevalence of NTM infections. One study done looked at the prevalence of NTM in the United States in the years following Hurricanes IKE, Katrina, and Rita. The study found the highest prevalence of NTM occurred in places most affected by the hurricanes.^[4]

Legionella

Legionella infections have flu-like symptoms and can sometimes lead to pneumonia. It is found in water and some potting soils. Legionella is commonly transmitted through inhaling contaminated aerosols, commonly from water sprays, jets, or mists. It can also occur from aspiration of contaminate water.^[7] Legionella is known to show a seasonal pattern with a peak during the warm months in temperate regions. With climate change expected to continue to increase the global temperature average some locations will stay warm longer. This could lead to more exposure as the gardening season expands causing more exposure to potting soils and water sprayers. Longer hotter summers could also lead to an increase in the use of cooling systems, such as cooling towers. These are known as hotspots for legionella outbreaks.^[4]

Related Research Articles

A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry. In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods are an area of study of the discipline hydrology and are of significant concern in agriculture, civil engineering and public health. Human changes to the environment often increase the intensity and frequency of flooding, for example land use changes such as deforestation and removal of wetlands, changes in waterway course or flood controls such as with levees, and larger environmental issues such as climate change and sea level rise. In particular climate change's increased rainfall and extreme weather events increases the severity of other causes for flooding, resulting in more intense floods and increased flood risk.

Legionella is a genus of pathogenic gram-negative bacteria that includes the species L. pneumophila, causing legionellosis including a pneumonia-type illness called Legionnaires' disease and a mild flu-like illness called Pontiac fever.

Vibrio is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria, possessing a curved-rod (comma) shape, several species of which can cause foodborne infection, usually associated with eating undercooked seafood. Being highly salt tolerant and unable to survive in fresh water, Vibrio spp. are commonly found in various salt water environments. Vibrio spp. are facultative anaerobes that test positive for oxidase and do not form spores. All members of the genus are motile. They are able to have polar or lateral flagellum with or without sheaths. Vibrio species typically possess two chromosomes, which is unusual for bacteria. Each chromosome has a distinct and independent origin of replication, and are conserved together over time in the genus. Recent phylogenies have been constructed based on a suite of genes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White band disease</span> Disease affecting marine corals

White band disease is a coral disease that affects acroporid corals and is distinguishable by the white band of exposed coral skeleton that it forms. The disease completely destroys the coral tissue of Caribbean acroporid corals, specifically elkhorn coral and staghorn coral. The disease exhibits a pronounced division between the remaining coral tissue and the exposed coral skeleton. These symptoms are similar to white plague, except that white band disease is only found on acroporid corals, and white plague has not been found on any acroporid corals. It is part of a class of similar disease known as "white syndromes", many of which may be linked to species of Vibrio bacteria. While the pathogen for this disease has not been identified, Vibrio carchariae may be one of its factors. The degradation of coral tissue usually begins at the base of the coral, working its way up to the branch tips, but it can begin in the middle of a branch.

Waterborne diseases are conditions caused by pathogenic micro-organisms that are transmitted by water. These diseases can be spread while bathing, washing, drinking water, or by eating food exposed to contaminated water. They are a pressing issue in rural areas amongst developing countries all over the world. While diarrhea and vomiting are the most commonly reported symptoms of waterborne illness, other symptoms can include skin, ear, respiratory, or eye problems. Lack of clean water supply, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) are major causes for the spread of waterborne diseases in a community. Therefore, reliable access to clean drinking water and sanitation is the main method to prevent waterborne diseases.

Health may refer to "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity.", according to the World Health Organization (WHO). 78.7 was the average life expectancy for individuals at birth in 2017. The highest cause of death for United States citizens is heart disease. Infectious diseases such as sexually transmitted diseases impact the health of approximately 19 million yearly. The two most commonly reported infectious diseases include chlamydia and gonorrhea. The United States is currently challenged by the COVID-19 pandemic, and is 19th in the world in COVID-19 vaccination rates. All 50 states in the U.S. require immunizations for children in order to enroll in public school, but various exemptions are available by state. Immunizations are often compulsory for military enlistment in the United States.

The effects of climate change on human health are increasingly well studied and quantified. Direct effects include heat waves and extreme weather events. Indirect effects take place through changes in the biosphere. Examples are changes in water and air quality, food security and displacement. Factors such as age, gender or socioeconomic status influence to what extent these effects become wide-spread risks to human health. Health risks are unevenly distributed across the world. Disadvantaged populations are especially vulnerable to climate change effects. For example, young children and older people are the most vulnerable to extreme heat.

Climate change in South Korea has led to extreme weather events in South Korea that affects: social, economy, industry, culture, and many other sectors. South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters. Such parameters include annual temperature, rainfall amounts, and precipitation.

In 2016, deadly floods hit Ethiopia, leaving at least 200 people dead and over 200,000 people homeless as seasonal rains come early to the country. The majority of these deaths occurred in the city of Jijiga while elsewhere, heavy downpours of rain were reported with more floods expected in the next few days. The floods are reportedly at higher levels than other flood travesties than that of previous years.

Climate change in Alabama encompasses the effects of climate change, attributed to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, in the U.S. state of Alabama.

Climate change in Arkansas refers to the effects of climate change attributed to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide in the state of Arkansas.

Climate change in Illinois encompasses the effects of climate change, attributed to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, in the U.S. state of Illinois.

Climate change in Kentucky encompasses the effects of climate change, attributed to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, in the U.S. state of Kentucky.

Climate change has had large impacts on the ecosystems and landscapes of the US territory Puerto Rico. According to a 2019 report by Germanwatch, Puerto Rico is the most affected by climate change. The territory's energy consumption is mainly derived from imported fossil fuels.

Climate change in the United States Virgin Islands encompasses the effects of climate change, attributed to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, in the U.S. territory of the United States Virgin Islands. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has noted a variety of expected consequences of this phenomenon.

Climate change in Tennessee encompasses the effects of climate change, attributed to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, in the U.S. state of Tennessee.

Climate change in Wisconsin encompasses the effects of climate change attributed to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, in the U.S. state of Wisconsin including the environmental, economic, and social impacts.

The effects of climate change on the water cycle are profound and have been described as an intensification or a strengthening of the water cycle. This effect has been observed since at least 1980. One example is the intensification of heavy precipitation events. This has important negative effects on the availability of freshwater resources, as well as other water reservoirs such as oceans, ice sheets, atmosphere and land surface. The water cycle is essential to life on Earth and plays a large role in the global climate and the ocean circulation. The warming of our planet is expected to cause changes in the water cycle for various reasons. For example, warmer atmosphere can contain more water vapor which has effects on evaporation and rainfall.

Climate change in Pennsylvania encompasses the effects of climate change, attributed to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania.

Climate change increasingly affected health problems in Ethiopia such as mortality and morbidity due to floods and heat waves, vector-borne diseases, water-borne diseases, meningitis, and air pollution-related respiratory disease. It continued throughout several stages and has been the main problem in agriculture and health. Currently, research is undeveloped regarding the climate issues and lacks coordinated follow-up, while there are few subsistence research studies detailing metrological condition. In addition, there is little awareness and few trained professionals to cope with health-related problems caused by climate change.

References

1 2 3 4 5 6 Levy, Karen; Smith, Shanon M.; Carlton, Elizabeth J. (2018). "Climate Change Impacts on Waterborne Diseases: Moving Toward Designing Interventions". Current Environmental Health Reports. 5 (2): 272–282. doi:10.1007/s40572-018-0199-7. ISSN 2196-5412. PMC 6119235 . PMID 29721700.
1 2 3 4 5 Hunter, P. R. (2003). "Climate change and waterborne and vector-borne disease". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 94 (s1): 37–46. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2672.94.s1.5.x . ISSN 1365-2672. PMID 12675935.
1 2 3 4 Levy, Karen; Woster, Andrew P.; Goldstein, Rebecca S.; Carlton, Elizabeth J. (2016-05-17). "Untangling the Impacts of Climate Change on Waterborne Diseases: a Systematic Review of Relationships between Diarrheal Diseases and Temperature, Rainfall, Flooding, and Drought". Environmental Science & Technology. 50 (10): 4905–4922. Bibcode:2016EnST...50.4905L. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b06186. ISSN 1520-5851. PMC 5468171 . PMID 27058059.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Walker, J. T. (2018). "The influence of climate change on waterborne disease and Legionella: a review". Perspectives in Public Health. 138 (5): 282–286. doi:10.1177/1757913918791198. ISSN 1757-9147. PMID 30156484. S2CID 52115812.
↑ "Vibrio Species Causing Vibriosis | Vibrio Illness (Vibriosis) | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-03-08. Retrieved 2021-01-17.
↑ "Learn about Nontuberculous Mycobacteria (NTM)". www.lung.org. Retrieved 2021-01-17.
↑ "Legionellosis". www.who.int. Retrieved 2021-01-17.

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[(Levy_et_al.,_2018)-1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 Levy, Karen; Smith, Shanon M.; Carlton, Elizabeth J. (2018). "Climate Change Impacts on Waterborne Diseases: Moving Toward Designing Interventions". Current Environmental Health Reports. 5 (2): 272–282. doi:10.1007/s40572-018-0199-7. ISSN 2196-5412. PMC 6119235 . PMID 29721700.

[(Hunter,_2003)-2] 1 2 3 4 5 Hunter, P. R. (2003). "Climate change and waterborne and vector-borne disease". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 94 (s1): 37–46. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2672.94.s1.5.x . ISSN 1365-2672. PMID 12675935.

[(Levy_et_al.,_2016)-3] 1 2 3 4 Levy, Karen; Woster, Andrew P.; Goldstein, Rebecca S.; Carlton, Elizabeth J. (2016-05-17). "Untangling the Impacts of Climate Change on Waterborne Diseases: a Systematic Review of Relationships between Diarrheal Diseases and Temperature, Rainfall, Flooding, and Drought". Environmental Science & Technology. 50 (10): 4905–4922. Bibcode:2016EnST...50.4905L. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b06186. ISSN 1520-5851. PMC 5468171 . PMID 27058059.

[(Walker,_2018)-4] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Walker, J. T. (2018). "The influence of climate change on waterborne disease and Legionella: a review". Perspectives in Public Health. 138 (5): 282–286. doi:10.1177/1757913918791198. ISSN 1757-9147. PMID 30156484. S2CID 52115812.

[CDC-5] "Vibrio Species Causing Vibriosis | Vibrio Illness (Vibriosis) | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-03-08. Retrieved 2021-01-17.

[American_Lung_Association-6] "Learn about Nontuberculous Mycobacteria (NTM)". www.lung.org. Retrieved 2021-01-17.

[WHO-7] "Legionellosis". www.who.int. Retrieved 2021-01-17.

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