Waxcap grassland

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Hygrocybe coccinea, a typical waxcap grassland species Scarlet Hood - geograph.org.uk - 584190.jpg
Hygrocybe coccinea , a typical waxcap grassland species

Waxcap grassland is short-sward, nutrient-poor grassland that supports a rich assemblage of larger fungi, particularly waxcaps (species of Hygrocybe and related genera), characteristic of such habitats. Waxcap grasslands occur principally in Europe, where they are declining as a result of agricultural practices. The fungal species are consequently of conservation concern and efforts have been made in the United Kingdom and elsewhere to protect both the grasslands and their characteristic fungi. Over 20 species of European waxcap grassland fungi are assessed as globally "vulnerable" or "endangered" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. [1]

Contents

Background

The association of waxcaps with unimproved (nutrient-poor) grasslands was first noted in 1949 in the Netherlands, [2] but current interest was stimulated by a series of papers published by Dutch mycologist Eef Arnolds in the 1980s. [3] [4] Arnolds not only confirmed the association of waxcaps with unimproved grasslands, but also noted the rapid decline in such habitats in the Netherlands. [4] Similar studies were subsequently undertaken elsewhere in Europe, initially in Denmark [5] and the United Kingdom. [6]

Definition and description

Waxcap grasslands are characterized by being unimproved (unfertilized and nutrient-poor), short-sward (through grazing or mowing), moss-rich, and long-established (not recently sown). [7] [8] They occur in both upland and lowland areas and may be on acidic, neutral, or calcareous soil. They support a wide range of characteristic larger fungi, but may not be equally species-rich in plants. [7]

Characteristic species

Larger fungi characteristic of waxcap grasslands include agarics (gilled mushrooms) belonging to the genera Cuphophyllus , Gliophorus , Gloioxanthomyces , Hygrocybe , Neohygrocybe , and Porpolomopsis (waxcaps), Entoloma (pinkgills), Dermoloma , Pseudotricholoma , Camarophyllopsis , and Hodophilus ; clavarioid fungi (club and coral fungi) belonging to the genera Clavaria , Clavulinopsis , and Ramariopsis ; and earthtongues belonging to the genera Geoglossum , Glutinoglossum , Microglossum , and Trichoglossum .

The "CHEG" or "CHEGD" assessment system

In 1995, Rald proposed a simple count of the number of waxcap species present at a given site in order to assess its value as a waxcap grassland. He suggested that the presence of 17 or more species meant the site was of national importance, 9-16 species of regional importance, 4-8 species of local importance, and 3 or fewer of no importance. [5] This system was modified by Rotheroe and others to include all the characteristic macrofungi and not just waxcaps. [6]

Known as the "CHEG" system, this is widely used in survey work today. The acronym "CHEG" stands for the main groups of relevant fungi: C - the clavarioid species (club and coral fungi); H - species of Hygrocybe and related genera (waxcaps); E - Entoloma species (pinkgills); and G - the geoglossoid fungi (earthtongues). More recently the modified term "CHEGD" has been used to include species of Dermoloma , Pseudotricholoma , Camarophyllopsis , and Hodophilus which also inhabit these grasslands. [9]

Conservation

The past 75 years have witnessed a loss of more than 90% of unimproved grasslands in western Europe, mainly due to agricultural intensification [10] through ploughing and reseeding, manuring, and the application of fertilizers and other chemicals. [4] [7] The maintenance of a short sward by grazing or mowing (and removal or cuttings) has also been shown to be important for fruiting of waxcaps, with haycutting in July, followed by aftermath grazing/mowing to 3 cm having found to be optimal. [8] In 1988, Arnolds estimated that only some 200 ha of unimproved waxcap grasslands remained in the Netherlands. [3]

As a result, both the unimproved, nutrient-poor grasslands and the larger fungi typical of such grasslands are of conservation concern, with 23 waxcap-grassland species currently assessed as globally "vulnerable" or "endangered" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. [1]

Globally threatened waxcap-grassland fungi

ImageScientific NameEnglish NameCurrent IUCN Red List Status
Clavaria zollingeri 01.jpg Clavaria zollingeri Violet Coralvulnerable
Hygrocybe canescens.jpg Cuphophyllus canescens Felted Waxcapvulnerable
2008-11-08 Cuphophyllus colemannianus.jpg Cuphophyllus colemannianus Toasted Waxcapvulnerable
2012-10-14 Hygrocybe lacmus (Schumach.) P.D. Orton & Watling 272585.jpg Cuphophyllus lacmus Grey Waxcapvulnerable
Cuphophyllus lepidopus Scalyfoot Waxcapvulnerable
Bresadola - Entoloma bloxamii.png Entoloma bloxamii Big Blue Pinkgillvulnerable
Graulilastieliger Zartling Entoloma Griseocyaneum.JPG Entoloma griseocyaneum Felted Pinkgillvulnerable
Entoloma porphyrophaeum BZ7.jpg Entoloma porphyrophaeum Lilac Pinkgillvulnerable
Entoloma prunuloides 567067.jpg Entoloma prunuloides Mealy Pinkgillvulnerable
Gliophorus europerplexus Butterscotch Waxcapvulnerable
Gliophorus reginae Jubilee Waxcapvulnerable
Hygrocybe vitellina1.jpg Gloioxanthomyces vitellinus Glistening Waxcapendangered
Hygrocybe citrinovirens MS7 (2).jpg Hygrocybe citrinovirens Citrine Waxcapvulnerable
Crimson Waxcap. Hygrocybe punicea (49055268862).jpg Hygrocybe punicea Crimson Waxcapvulnerable
Hygrocybe spadicea.jpg Hygrocybe spadicea Date Waxcapvulnerable
Splendid Waxcap . Hygocybe splendidissima (49055264607).jpg Hygrocybe splendidissima Splendid Waxcapvulnerable
Geoglossum atropurpureum 399563.jpg Microglossum atropurpureum Dark-purple Earthtonguevulnerable
Neohygrocybe ingrata Dingy Waxcapvulnerable
2008-10-19 Hygrocybe nitrata 20200 cropped.jpg Neohygrocybe nitrata Nitrous Waxcapvulnerable
Hygrocybe ovina.jpg Neohygrocybe ovina Blushing Waxcapvulnerable
Porpolomopsis calyptriformis - pink waxcap (48813404497).jpg Porpolomopsis calyptriformis Pink Waxcapvulnerable
Pseudotricholoma metapodium Mealy Meadowcapendangered
2016-09-14 Trichoglossum walteri (Berk.) E.J. Durand 665220.jpg Trichoglossum walteri Short-spored Earthtonguevulnerable

Conservation in the United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, survey work has shown that surviving waxcap grasslands are more extensive than in many other European countries, thanks mainly to large areas of unimproved upland sheep pastures and also to many unimproved lawns (especially in churchyards and country houses) and amenity grasslands. [10] Nonetheless, five species characteristic of waxcap grasslands - Entoloma bloxamii , Porpolomopsis calyptriformis , Hygrocybe spadicea , Microglossum atropurpureum , and Microglossum olivaceum - were formerly the subject of national Biodiversity Action Plans [11] and waxcap grasslands as a specific habitat were the subject of several local Biodiversity Action Plans. [12] [13] Four species - E. bloxamii, H. spadicea, M. atropurpureum, and M. olivaceum - are currently listed as "Priority Species" under Section 41 of the Natural Environment and Rural Communities Act (in England) [14] and Section 7 of the Environment (Wales) Act (in Wales). [15]

JNCC (Joint Nature Conservation Committee) has issued "Guidelines for the Selection of Biological SSSIs" (Sites of Special Scientific Interest) that offer a measure of protection to waxcap grasslands. Using the "CHEGD" system, sites should be considered for notification as SSSIs if the total number of waxcap species reaches or exceeds 19. Thresholds are also stipulated for other CHEGD species. [16] As a result, several waxcap-grassland sites, such as the banks of Llanishen and Lisvane Reservoirs in Cardiff [13] [17] Down Farm in Dorset, [18] The Leasowes in Shropshire, [19] and the lawns of Roecliffe Manor in Leicestershire, [20] have been designated Sites of Special Scientific Interest.

Waxcap grassland surveys have been undertaken by the British Mycological Society, [6] the National Trust, [21] Plantlife, [22] and the various national conservation bodies. [23] [24] A leaflet on managing waxcap grasslands in Britain and Ireland has been published by Plantlife and the Fungus Conservation Forum. [25]

Related Research Articles

<i>Hygrocybe</i> Genus of fungi

Hygrocybe is a genus of agarics in the family Hygrophoraceae. Called waxcaps in English, basidiocarps are often brightly coloured and have dry to waxy caps, white spores, and smooth, ringless stems. In Europe they are characteristic of old, unimproved grasslands which are a declining habitat, making many Hygrocybe species of conservation concern. Four of these waxcap-grassland species, Hygrocybe citrinovirens, H. punicea, H. spadicea, and H. splendidissima, are assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Elsewhere waxcaps are more typically found in woodlands. Most are ground-dwelling and all are believed to be biotrophs. Around 150 species are recognized worldwide. Fruit bodies of several Hygrocybe species are considered edible and are sometimes offered for sale in local markets.

<i>Camarophyllopsis</i> Genus of fungi

Camarophyllopsis is a genus of agarics in the family Clavariaceae. Basidiocarps are dull-coloured and have dry caps, rather distant, decurrent lamellae, white spores, and smooth, ringless stems. In Europe species are characteristic of old, unimproved grasslands which are a declining habitat, making them of conservation concern.

<i>Hygrocybe punicea</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe punicea is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of crimson waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Records of H. punicea from North America, East Asia, and Australia require further research to see if they represent the same species.

<i>Clavaria fragilis</i> Species of fungus

Clavaria fragilis, commonly known as fairy fingers, white worm coral, or white spindles, is a species of fungus in the family Clavariaceae. It is synonymous with Clavaria vermicularis. The fungus is the type species of the genus Clavaria and is a typical member of the clavarioid or club fungi. It produces tubular, unbranched, white basidiocarps that typically grow in clusters. The fruit bodies can reach dimensions of 15 cm (5.9 in) tall by 0.5 cm (0.2 in) thick. Clavaria fragilis is a saprobic species, growing in woodland litter or in old, unimproved grassland. It is widespread throughout temperate regions in the Northern Hemisphere, but has also been reported from Australia and South Africa. The fungus is edible, but insubstantial and flavorless. There are several other small white coral-like fungi with which C. fragilis may be confused.

<i>Entoloma bloxamii</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma bloxamii, commonly known as the midnight blue entoloma, or big blue pinkgill, is a species of agaric in the family Entolomataceae. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Entoloma bloxamii has been reported from North America, but at least some of these reports represent a distinct species, Entoloma medianox. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Big Blue Pinkgill being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Porpolomopsis calyptriformis</i> Species of fungus

Porpolomopsis calyptriformis, commonly known as the pink wax cap, ballerina waxcap or salmon waxy cap, is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. A similar but as yet unnamed species occurs in North America.

<i>Cuphophyllus virgineus</i> Species of fungus

Cuphophyllus virgineus is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. Its recommended English common name is snowy waxcap in the UK. The species has a largely north temperate distribution, occurring in grassland in Europe and in woodland in North America and northern Asia, but is also known from Australia. It typically produces basidiocarps in the autumn.

<i>Cuphophyllus pratensis</i> Species of fungus

Cuphophyllus pratensis is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of meadow waxcap in the UK and in North America has variously been called the meadow waxy cap, salmon waxy cap, and butter meadowcap. The species has a widespread, mainly temperate distribution, occurring in grassland in Europe and in woodland elsewhere. The basidiocarps are edible and are occasionally collected and sold commercially.

<i>Gliophorus irrigatus</i> Species of fungus

Gliophorus irrigatus is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of slimy waxcap in the UK. The species is widespread in temperate regions, occurring in grassland in Europe and in woodland in North America and elsewhere.

<i>Hygrocybe quieta</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe quieta is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of oily waxcap in the UK. The species has a European distribution and typically occurs in grassland where it produces basidiocarps in the autumn. In several countries, H. quieta is of conservation concern, appearing on national red lists of threatened fungi.

<i>Gloioxanthomyces vitellinus</i> Species of fungus

Gloioxanthomyces vitellinus is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Glistening Waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Glistening Waxcap being assessed as globally "endangered" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Hygrocybe splendidissima</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe splendidissima, is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Splendid Waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Neohygrocybe ingrata</i> Species of fungus

Neohygrocybe ingrata is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of dingy waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Hygrocybe citrinovirens</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe citrinovirens is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Citrine Waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Neohygrocybe ovina</i> Species of fungus

Neohygrocybe ovina is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of blushing waxcap, since the lamellae (gills) and flesh turn pinkish red when bruised. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Hygrocybe spadicea</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe spadicea is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Date Waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Entoloma porphyrophaeum</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma porphyrophaeum is a species of agaric in the family Entolomataceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Lilac Pinkgill. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Entoloma porphyrophaeum has been reported from North America, but at least some of these reports represent a distinct species, Entoloma canadense. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Lilac Pinkgill being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Entoloma prunuloides</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma prunuloides is a species of agaric in the family Entolomataceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Mealy Pinkgill, based on its distinctive smell. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Mealy Pinkgill being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Entoloma griseocyaneum</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma griseocyaneum is a species of agaric in the family Entolomataceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Felted Pinkgill. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Felted Pinkgill being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Cuphophyllus lepidopus is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of scalyfoot waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

References

  1. 1 2 "Fungi: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species" . Retrieved 2022-06-01.[ clarification needed ]
  2. ↑ Schweers ACS. (1949). "Hygrophorusweide, een associatie". Fungus. 19: 17–18.
  3. 1 2 Arnolds E. (1988). "The changing macromycete flora in the Netherlands". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 90 (3): 391–406. doi:10.1016/s0007-1536(88)80148-7.
  4. 1 2 3 Arnolds E. (1989). "The influence of increased fertilization on the macrofungi of a sheep meadow". Opera Botanica. 100: 7–21.
  5. 1 2 Rald E. (1995). "Vokshatte som indikatorarter for mykologisk verifulde overdrevslokaliteter". Svampe. 11: 57–65.
  6. 1 2 3 Rotheroe M, Newton A, Evans S, Feehan J (1996). "Waxcap-grassland survey". The Mycologist. 10: 23–25. doi:10.1016/s0269-915x(96)80046-2.
  7. 1 2 3 Griffith GW, Easton GL, Jones AW (2002). "Ecology and diversity of waxcap (Hygrocybe spp) fungi" (DOC). Botanical Journal of Scotland. 54: 7–22. doi:10.1080/03746600208685025. S2CID   84829857.
  8. 1 2 Griffith, Gareth W.; Roderick, Kevin; Graham, Andrew; Causton, David R. (January 2012). "Sward management influences fruiting of grassland basidiomycete fungi". Biological Conservation. 145 (1): 234–240. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.11.010. ISSN   0006-3207.
  9. ↑ https://cieem.net/grasslands-and-chegd-fungi/
  10. 1 2 Griffith, G.W.; Gamarra, J.G.P.; Holden, E.M.; Mitchel, D.; Graham, A.; Evans, D.A.; Evans, S.E.; Aron, C.; Noordeloos, M.E.; Kirk, P.M.; Smith, S.L.N.; Woods, R.G.; Hale, A.D.; Easton, G.L.; Ratkowsky, D.A.; Stevens, D.P.; Halbwachs, H. (30 August 2014). "The international conservation importance of Welsh 'waxcap' grasslands". Mycosphere. 4 (5): 969–984. doi: 10.5943/mycosphere/4/5/10 . hdl: 2160/12419 .
  11. ↑ UK BAP priority fungi species http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-5165
  12. ↑ waxcap grassland action plan https://neenp.org.uk/natural-environment/durham-priority-habitats/waxcap-grassland-action-plan/
  13. 1 2 Provisional atlas of waxcap fungi Hygrocybe in Cardiff https://www.aber.ac.uk/waxcap/downloads/Grantham-CardiffWaxcapAtlas2009.pdf
  14. ↑ "Section 41 Species - Priority Actions Needed (B2020-008)". publications.naturalengland.org.uk. Natural England. October 2013. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
  15. ↑ Section 7 Priority Species https://www.biodiversitywales.org.uk/environment-wales-act
  16. ↑ Guidelines for the Selection of Biological SSSIs: Chapter 14: Non-lichenised Fungi https://data.jncc.gov.uk/data/d1fcb171-8086-4f5b-ade5-a34c5edc78c5/SSSI-Guidelines-14-Non-lichenisedfungi-2018a.pdf
  17. ↑ Llanishen and Lisvane Reservoirs: Ecology http://www.friendsofcardiffreservoirs.org/ecology/
  18. ↑ Down Farm SSSI https://consult.defra.gov.uk/natural-england/down-farm/supporting_documents/Down_Farm_Supporting_Info_final%20notified%207%20Feb%202019.pdf
  19. ↑ The Leasowes https://www.dudley.gov.uk/news/rare-mushrooms-to-get-special-protection-at-halesowen-beauty-spot/
  20. ↑ Roecliffe Manor SSSI https://pap.charnwood.gov.uk/AnitePublicDocs/00135127.pdf
  21. ↑ Grassland Fungi Project https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/hardcastle-crags/features/grassland-fungi-project
  22. ↑ Waxcap Watch//https://www.plantlife.org.uk/uk/discover-wild-plants-nature/habitats/grassland/waxcaps-fungi/waxcapp-survey
  23. ↑ Evans S (2003). "Waxcap-grasslands - an assessment of English sites". English Nature Research Reports. 555: 1–49.
  24. ↑ Scottish Fungi - grassland fungi project http://sites.google.com/site/scottishfungi/conservation/grassland-fungi
  25. ↑ Anon. Grassland gems: managing lawns and pastures for fungi (leaflet) (PDF). Plantlife. p. 4.
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