Waxcap grassland is short-sward, nutrient-poor grassland that supports a rich assemblage of larger fungi, particularly waxcaps (species of Hygrocybe and related genera), characteristic of such habitats. Waxcap grasslands occur principally in Europe, where they are declining as a result of agricultural practices. The fungal species are consequently of conservation concern and efforts have been made in the United Kingdom and elsewhere to protect both the grasslands and their characteristic fungi. Over 20 species of European waxcap grassland fungi are assessed as globally "vulnerable" or "endangered" on the IUCN Red List of threatened species. [1]
The association of waxcaps with unimproved (nutrient-poor) grasslands was first noted in 1949 in the Netherlands, [2] but current interest was stimulated by a series of papers published by Dutch mycologist Eef Arnolds in the 1980s. [3] [4] Arnolds not only confirmed the association of waxcaps with unimproved grasslands, but also noted the rapid decline in such habitats in the Netherlands. [4] Similar studies were subsequently undertaken elsewhere in Europe, initially in Denmark [5] and the United Kingdom. [6]
Waxcap grasslands are characterized by being unimproved (unfertilized and nutrient-poor), short-sward (through grazing or mowing), moss-rich, and long-established (not recently sown). [7] [8] They occur in both upland and lowland areas and may be on acidic, neutral, or calcareous soil. They support a wide range of characteristic larger fungi, but may not be equally species-rich in plants. [7]
Larger fungi characteristic of waxcap grasslands include agarics (gilled mushrooms) belonging to the genera Cuphophyllus , Gliophorus , Gloioxanthomyces , Hygrocybe , Neohygrocybe , and Porpolomopsis (waxcaps), Entoloma (pinkgills), Dermoloma , Pseudotricholoma , Camarophyllopsis , and Hodophilus ; clavarioid fungi (club and coral fungi) belonging to the genera Clavaria , Clavulinopsis , and Ramariopsis ; and earthtongues belonging to the genera Geoglossum , Glutinoglossum , Microglossum , and Trichoglossum .
In 1995, Rald proposed a simple count of the number of waxcap species present at a given site in order to assess its value as a waxcap grassland. He suggested that the presence of 17 or more species meant the site was of national importance, 9–16 species of regional importance, 4–8 species of local importance, and 3 or fewer of no importance. [5] This system was modified by Rotheroe and others to include all the characteristic macrofungi and not just waxcaps. [6]
Known as the "CHEG" system, this is widely used in survey work today. The acronym "CHEG" stands for the main groups of relevant fungi: C - the clavarioid species (club and coral fungi); H - species of Hygrocybe and related genera (waxcaps); E - Entoloma species (pinkgills); and G - the geoglossoid fungi (earthtongues). More recently the modified term "CHEGD" has been used to include species of Dermoloma , Pseudotricholoma , Camarophyllopsis , and Hodophilus which also inhabit these grasslands. [9]
The past 75 years have witnessed a loss of more than 90% of unimproved grasslands in western Europe, mainly due to agricultural intensification [10] through ploughing and reseeding, manuring, and the application of fertilizers and other chemicals. [4] [7] The maintenance of a short sward by grazing or mowing (and removal or cuttings) has also been shown to be important for fruiting of waxcaps, with haycutting in July, followed by aftermath grazing/mowing to 3 cm having found to be optimal. [8] In 1988, Arnolds estimated that only some 200 ha of unimproved waxcap grasslands remained in the Netherlands. [3]
As a result, both the unimproved, nutrient-poor grasslands and the larger fungi typical of such grasslands are of conservation concern, with 23 waxcap-grassland species currently assessed as globally "vulnerable" or "endangered" on the IUCN Red List of threatened species. [1]
Image | Scientific Name | English Name | Current IUCN Red List Status |
---|---|---|---|
Clavaria zollingeri | Violet Coral | vulnerable | |
Cuphophyllus canescens | Felted Waxcap | vulnerable | |
Cuphophyllus colemannianus | Toasted Waxcap | vulnerable | |
Cuphophyllus lacmus | Grey Waxcap | vulnerable | |
Cuphophyllus lepidopus | Scalyfoot Waxcap | vulnerable | |
Entoloma bloxamii | Big Blue Pinkgill | vulnerable | |
Entoloma griseocyaneum | Felted Pinkgill | vulnerable | |
Entoloma porphyrophaeum | Lilac Pinkgill | vulnerable | |
Entoloma prunuloides | Mealy Pinkgill | vulnerable | |
Gliophorus europerplexus | Butterscotch Waxcap | vulnerable | |
Gliophorus reginae | Jubilee Waxcap | vulnerable | |
Gloioxanthomyces vitellinus | Glistening Waxcap | endangered | |
Hygrocybe citrinovirens | Citrine Waxcap | vulnerable | |
Hygrocybe punicea | Crimson Waxcap | vulnerable | |
Hygrocybe spadicea | Date Waxcap | vulnerable | |
Hygrocybe splendidissima | Splendid Waxcap | vulnerable | |
Microglossum atropurpureum | Dark-purple Earthtongue | vulnerable | |
Neohygrocybe ingrata | Dingy Waxcap | vulnerable | |
Neohygrocybe nitrata | Nitrous Waxcap | vulnerable | |
Neohygrocybe ovina | Blushing Waxcap | vulnerable | |
Porpolomopsis calyptriformis | Pink Waxcap | vulnerable | |
Pseudotricholoma metapodium | Mealy Meadowcap | endangered | |
Trichoglossum walteri | Short-spored Earthtongue | vulnerable | |
In the United Kingdom, survey work has shown that surviving waxcap grasslands are more extensive than in many other European countries, thanks mainly to large areas of unimproved upland sheep pastures and also to many unimproved lawns (especially in churchyards and country houses) and amenity grasslands. [10] Nonetheless, five species characteristic of waxcap grasslands - Entoloma bloxamii , Porpolomopsis calyptriformis , Hygrocybe spadicea , Microglossum atropurpureum , and Microglossum olivaceum - were formerly the subject of national Biodiversity Action Plans [11] and waxcap grasslands as a specific habitat were the subject of several local Biodiversity Action Plans. [12] [13] Four species - E. bloxamii, H. spadicea, M. atropurpureum, and M. olivaceum - are currently listed as "Priority Species" under Section 41 of the Natural Environment and Rural Communities Act (in England) [14] and Section 7 of the Environment (Wales) Act (in Wales). [15]
JNCC (Joint Nature Conservation Committee) has issued "Guidelines for the Selection of Biological SSSIs" (Sites of Special Scientific Interest) that offer a measure of protection to waxcap grasslands. Using the "CHEGD" system, sites should be considered for notification as SSSIs if the total number of waxcap species reaches or exceeds 19. Thresholds are also stipulated for other CHEGD species. [16] As a result, several waxcap-grassland sites, such as the banks of Llanishen and Lisvane Reservoirs in Cardiff, [13] [17] Down Farm in Dorset, [18] The Leasowes in Shropshire, [19] and the lawns of Roecliffe Manor in Leicestershire, [20] have been designated Sites of Special Scientific Interest.
Waxcap grassland surveys have been undertaken by the British Mycological Society, [6] the National Trust, [21] Plantlife, [22] and the various national conservation bodies. [23] [24] A leaflet on managing waxcap grasslands in Britain and Ireland has been published by Plantlife and the Fungus Conservation Forum. [25]
Hygrocybe is a genus of agarics in the family Hygrophoraceae. Called waxcaps in English, basidiocarps are often brightly coloured and have dry to waxy caps, white spores, and smooth, ringless stems. In Europe they are characteristic of old, unimproved grasslands which are a declining habitat, making many Hygrocybe species of conservation concern. Four of these waxcap-grassland species, Hygrocybe citrinovirens, H. punicea, H. spadicea, and H. splendidissima, are assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Elsewhere waxcaps are more typically found in woodlands. Most are ground-dwelling and all are believed to be biotrophs. Around 150 species are recognized worldwide. Fruit bodies of several Hygrocybe species are considered edible and are sometimes offered for sale in local markets.
Hygrocybe punicea is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of crimson waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Records of H. punicea from North America, East Asia, and Australia require further research to see if they represent the same species.
Entoloma bloxamii, commonly known as the midnight blue entoloma, or big blue pinkgill, is a species of agaric in the family Entolomataceae. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Entoloma bloxamii has been reported from North America, but at least some of these reports represent a distinct species, Entoloma medianox. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Big Blue Pinkgill being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Porpolomopsis calyptriformis, commonly known as the pink wax cap, ballerina waxcap or salmon waxy cap, is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. A similar but as yet unnamed species occurs in North America.
Cuphophyllus virgineus is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. Its recommended English common name is snowy waxcap in the UK. The species has a largely north temperate distribution, occurring in grassland in Europe and in woodland in North America and northern Asia, but is also known from Australia. It typically produces basidiocarps in the autumn.
Gliophorus irrigatus is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of slimy waxcap in the UK. The species is widespread in temperate regions, occurring in grassland in Europe and in woodland in North America and elsewhere.
Hygrocybe quieta is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of oily waxcap in the UK. The species has a European distribution and typically occurs in grassland where it produces basidiocarps in the autumn. In several countries, H. quieta is of conservation concern, appearing on national red lists of threatened fungi.
Trichoglossum hirsutum is a species of fungus in the family Geoglossaceae. In the UK, it has been given the recommended English name of hairy earthtongue. In North America it is known variously as velvety black earth tongue, velvety earth tongue, shaggy earth tongue, or black earth tongue. DNA evidence suggests the hairy earthtongue may be a species complex.
Gloioxanthomyces vitellinus is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of glistening waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the glistening waxcap being assessed as globally "endangered" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Hygrocybe splendidissima, is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Splendid Waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Neohygrocybe ingrata is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of dingy waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Hygrocybe citrinovirens is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Citrine Waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Neohygrocybe ovina is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of blushing waxcap, since the lamellae (gills) and flesh turn pinkish red when bruised. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Hygrocybe spadicea is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Date Waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Cuphophyllus colemannianus is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of toasted waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Entoloma porphyrophaeum is a species of agaric in the family Entolomataceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Lilac Pinkgill. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Entoloma porphyrophaeum has been reported from North America, but at least some of these reports represent a distinct species, Entoloma canadense. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Lilac Pinkgill being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Entoloma prunuloides is a species of agaric in the family Entolomataceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Mealy Pinkgill, based on its distinctive smell. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Mealy Pinkgill being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Entoloma griseocyaneum is a species of agaric in the family Entolomataceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Felted Pinkgill. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Felted Pinkgill being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Pseudotricholoma metapodium is a species of agaric in the family Tricholomataceae. It has been given the recommended English name of mealy meadowcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the mealy meadowcap being assessed as globally "endangered" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Cuphophyllus lepidopus is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of scalyfoot waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.