Hygrocybe

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Hygrocybe
2011-06-17 Hygrocybe cantharellus 69428 cropped.jpg
Hygrocybe cantharellus
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Hygrophoraceae
Genus: Hygrocybe
(Fr.) P.Kumm. (1871)
Type species
Hygrocybe conica
(Schaeff.) P.Kumm. (1871)
Synonyms [1]
  • Godfrinia Maire (1902)
  • Bertrandia R.Heim (1936)
  • Pseudohygrocybe(Bon) Kovalenko (1988)

Hygrocybe is a genus of agarics (gilled fungi) in the family Hygrophoraceae. Called waxcaps in English (sometimes waxy caps in North America), basidiocarps (fruit bodies) are often brightly coloured and have dry to waxy caps, white spores, and smooth, ringless stems. In Europe they are characteristic of old, unimproved grasslands (termed waxcap grasslands) which are a declining habitat, making many Hygrocybe species of conservation concern. Four of these waxcap-grassland species, Hygrocybe citrinovirens , H. punicea , H. spadicea , and H. splendidissima , are assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. [2] Elsewhere waxcaps are more typically found in woodlands. Most are ground-dwelling and all are believed to be biotrophs. Around 150 species are recognized worldwide. Fruit bodies of several Hygrocybe species are considered edible and are sometimes offered for sale in local markets.

Contents

Taxonomy

History

Hygrocybe was first published in 1821 by Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries as a subsection of Agaricus and in 1871 was raised to the rank of genus by Kummer. In several papers, Karsten and Murrill used the name Hydrocybe, but this is now taken as an orthographic variant of Hygrocybe. The generic name is derived from the Greek ῦγρὁς (= moist) + κυβη (= head). [3] [4]

Despite its comparatively early publication, the genus Hygrocybe was not widely accepted until the 1970s, most previous authors treating it as a synonym of Hygrophorus , a related genus of ectomycorrhizal agarics. [3] [5]

Current status

Recent molecular research, based on cladistic analysis of DNA sequences, has shown that Hygrocybe sensu lato is paraphyletic and does not form a single clade within the Hygrophoraceae. As a result, many species formerly referred to Hygrocybe have been transferred to the genera Chromosera , Cuphophyllus , Gliophorus , Gloioxanthomyces , Humidicutis , Neohygrocybe , or Porpolomopsis . [6] [7] [8] [9] This leaves Hygrocybe sensu stricto as a smaller but more cohesive genus of species related to the type, Hygrocybe conica .

Description

Fruit bodies of Hygrocybe species are all agaricoid, most (but not all) having smooth to slightly scaly caps that are convex to conical and dry to waxy or viscid when damp. Many (but not all) are brightly coloured in shades of red, orange, or yellow. Where present, the gills beneath the cap are often equally coloured and usually distant, thick, and waxy. One atypical South American species, Hygrocybe aphylla, lacks gills. [10] The stems of Hygrocybe species lack a ring. The spore print is white. Fruit bodies of some species, notably Hygrocybe conica , blacken with age or when bruised. Microscopically, Hygrocybe species lack true cystidia and have comparatively large, smooth, inamyloid basidiospores. [11]

Hygrocybe singeri spores 1000x Hygrocybe singeri spores 1000x.jpg
Hygrocybe singeri spores 1000x

Habitat, nutrition, and distribution

Species of Hygrocybe are soil-dwelling. In Europe, most species are typical of unimproved (nutrient-poor), short-sward grasslands, often termed "waxcap grasslands", [12] but elsewhere they are more commonly found in woodland.

Their metabolism has long been debated, but recent research suggests that they are not saprotrophic [13] [14] but rather symbiotically associated with the roots of higher plants or mosses. Hyphae of H. conica have been detected in plant roots. [14]

Species are distributed worldwide, from the tropics to the sub-polar regions. Around 150 have been described to date. [15] Waxcaps receive most attention in northern Europe, [16] where they are found in nutrient-poor pastures. [11] However, outside Europe, waxcaps are more commonly associated with woodland habitats, for example the sclerophyll forests site at Lane Cove Bushland Park and Ferndale Park, Sydney. [17]

Conservation

In Europe, waxcap grasslands and their associated fungi are of conservation concern, since unimproved grasslands (formerly commonplace) have declined dramatically as a result of changes in agricultural practice. This decline has led to four European Hygrocybe species, Hygrocybe citrinovirens , H. punicea , H. spadicea , and H. splendidissima , being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. [2]

Elsewhere, several rare and localized endemic species are assessed as globally "endangered" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. [2] They include Hygrocybe boothii in Australia, Hygrocybe noelokelani and Hygrocybe pakelo in Hawaii, Hygrocybe striatella in Chile, and Hygrocybe flavifolia in California.

Economic usage

Because Hygrocybe species cannot be maintained in culture, [18] none is cultivated commercially. Fruit bodies of a few species are considered edible in eastern Europe, south-east Asia, and Central America and are collected and consumed locally. [19]

Literature

No comprehensive monograph of the genus has yet been published. In Europe, however, species of Hygrocybe have been illustrated and described in a standard English-language guide by Boertmann (2010) [11] and also (together with Hygrophorus) in an Italian guide by Candusso (1997). [20] European species have also been covered, more briefly, in descriptive French keys by Bon (1990). [21] Dutch species were illustrated and described by Arnolds (1990). [22] No equivalent modern guides have been published for North America, the most recent being by Hesler & Smith (1963). [5] There is, however, a guide to Californian species by Largent (1985). [23] In Australia, Hygrocybe species have been illustrated and described by Young (2005) [24] and in New Zealand by Horak (1990). [25]

Species

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hygrophoraceae</span> Family of fungi

The Hygrophoraceae are a family of fungi in the order Agaricales. Originally conceived as containing white-spored, thick-gilled agarics, including Hygrophorus and Hygrocybe species, DNA evidence has extended the limits of the family, so it now contains not only agarics, but also basidiolichens and corticioid fungi. Species are thus diverse and are variously ectomycorrhizal, lichenized, associated with mosses, or saprotrophic. The family contains 34 genera and over 1000 species. None is of any great economic importance, though fruit bodies of some Hygrocybe and Hygrophorus species are considered edible and may be collected for sale in local markets.

<i>Hygrophorus</i> Genus of fungi

Hygrophorus is a genus of agarics in the family Hygrophoraceae. Called "woodwaxes" in the UK or "waxy caps" in North America, basidiocarps are typically fleshy, often with slimy caps and lamellae that are broadly attached to decurrent. All species are ground-dwelling and ectomycorrhizal and are typically found in woodland. Around 100 species are recognized worldwide. Fruit bodies of several species are considered edible and are sometimes offered for sale in local markets.

<i>Hygrocybe conica</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe conica is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. In the UK it has been given the recommended English name of blackening waxcap, since all parts of the basidiocarp blacken with age. In North America it is commonly known as the witch's hat, conical wax cap or conical slimy cap. Hygrocybe conica is known to be a complex of at least eleven closely related species and as such is widespread in Europe, North America, Asia, and elsewhere.

<i>Hygrocybe punicea</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe punicea is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of crimson waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Records of H. punicea from North America, East Asia, and Australia require further research to see if they represent the same species.

<i>Cuphophyllus</i> Genus of fungi

Cuphophyllus is a genus of agaric fungi in the family Hygrophoraceae. Cuphophyllus species belong to a group known as waxcaps in English, sometimes also waxy caps in North America or waxgills in New Zealand. In Europe, Cuphophyllus species are typical of waxcap grasslands, a declining habitat due to changing agricultural practices. As a result, four species, Cuphophyllus atlanticus, C. colemannianus, C. lacmus, and C. lepidopus are of global conservation concern and are listed as "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Gliophorus</i> Genus of fungi

Gliophorus is a genus of agaric fungi in the family Hygrophoraceae. Gliophorus species belong to a group known as waxcaps in English, sometimes also waxy caps in North America or waxgills in New Zealand. In Europe, Gliophorus species are typical of waxcap grasslands, a declining habitat due to changing agricultural practices. As a result, two species, Gliophorus europerplexus and Gliophorus reginae, are of global conservation concern and are listed as "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Porpolomopsis calyptriformis</i> Species of fungus

Porpolomopsis calyptriformis, commonly known as the pink wax cap, ballerina waxcap or salmon waxy cap, is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. A similar but as yet unnamed species occurs in North America.

<i>Hygrocybe chlorophana</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe chlorophana is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of golden waxcap in the UK. The species has a largely north temperate distribution, occurring in grassland in Europe and in woodland in North America and northern Asia; it has also been reported from mountainous areas of southern Australia. It typically produces basidiocarps in the autumn. In a few European countries, H. chlorophana is of conservation concern, appearing on national red lists of threatened fungi.

<i>Cuphophyllus virgineus</i> Species of fungus

Cuphophyllus virgineus is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. Its recommended English common name is snowy waxcap in the UK. The species has a largely north temperate distribution, occurring in grassland in Europe and in woodland in North America and northern Asia, but is also known from Australia. It typically produces basidiocarps in the autumn.

<i>Cuphophyllus pratensis</i> Species of fungus

Cuphophyllus pratensis is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of meadow waxcap in the UK and in North America has variously been called the meadow waxy cap, salmon waxy cap, and butter meadowcap. The species has a widespread, mainly temperate distribution, occurring in grassland in Europe and in woodland elsewhere. The basidiocarps are edible and are occasionally collected and sold commercially.

<i>Hygrocybe quieta</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe quieta is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of oily waxcap in the UK. The species has a European distribution and typically occurs in grassland where it produces basidiocarps in the autumn. In several countries, H. quieta is of conservation concern, appearing on national red lists of threatened fungi.

<i>Hygrocybe splendidissima</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe splendidissima, is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Splendid Waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Neohygrocybe ingrata</i> Species of fungus

Neohygrocybe ingrata is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of dingy waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Hygrocybe citrinovirens</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe citrinovirens is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Citrine Waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Neohygrocybe ovina</i> Species of fungus

Neohygrocybe ovina is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of blushing waxcap, since the lamellae (gills) and flesh turn pinkish red when bruised. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Hygrocybe spadicea</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe spadicea is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Date Waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Cuphophyllus colemannianus</i> Species of fungus

Cuphophyllus colemannianus is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of toasted waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Cuphophyllus lacmus</i> Species of fungus

Cuphophyllus lacmus is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of grey waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Neohygrocybe nitrata</i> Species of fungus

Neohygrocybe nitrata is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of nitrous waxcap, based on its smell. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Cuphophyllus lepidopus is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of scalyfoot waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

References

  1. ↑ "Hygrocybe (Fr.) P. Kumm". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2011-09-22.
  2. 1 2 3 "Hygrocybe: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species" . Retrieved 2022-05-01.
  3. 1 2 Rea C. (1922). British Basidiomycetaceae: A Handbook of the Larger British Fungi. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 799.
  4. ↑ Cornelis, Schrevel (1826). Schrevelius' Greek lexicon, tr. into Engl. with numerous corrections. pp. 184–186. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  5. 1 2 Hesler LR, Smith AH (1963). North American species of Hygrophorus. University of Tennessee Press. p. 416.
  6. ↑ Kovalenko AE, Moncalvo J-M, Vilgalys R, Petersen RH, Hughes KW, Lodge DJ (2002). "Recent advances in molecular phylogeny of temperate Hygrophoraceae and concordance with morphology and ecology (abstract)". IMC7 Abstracts (146).[ permanent dead link ]
  7. ↑ Matheny PB, Curtis JM, Hofstetter V, Aime MC, Moncalvo JM, Ge ZW, Slot JC, Ammirati JF, Baroni TJ, Bougher NL, Hughes KW, Lodge DJ, Kerrigan RW, Seidl MT, Aanen DK, DeNitis M, Daniele GM, Desjardin DE, Kropp BR, Norvell LL, Parker A, Vellinga EC, Vilgalys R, Hibbett DS (2006). "Major clades of Agaricales: a multilocus phylogenetic overview" (PDF). Mycologia. 98 (6): 982–95. doi:10.3852/mycologia.98.6.982. PMID   17486974. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-03.
  8. ↑ Babos M, Halász K, Zagyva T, Zöld-Balogh Á, Szegő D, Bratek Z (2011). "Preliminary notes on dual relevance of ITS sequences and pigments in Hygrocybe taxonomy". Persoonia. 26: 99–107. doi:10.3767/003158511X578349. PMC   3160800 . PMID   22025807.
  9. ↑ Lodge, D. Jean; Padamsee, Mahajabeen; Matheny, P. Brandon; Aime, M. Catherine; Cantrell, Sharon A.; Boertmann, David; Kovalenko, Alexander; Vizzini, Alfredo; Dentinger, Bryn T. M. (2014-01-01). "Molecular phylogeny, morphology, pigment chemistry and ecology in Hygrophoraceae (Agaricales)" (PDF). Fungal Diversity. 64 (1): 1–99. doi: 10.1007/s13225-013-0259-0 . ISSN   1560-2745. S2CID   220615978.
  10. ↑ Læssøe T, Boertmann D (2008). "A new alamellate Hygrocybe species from Ecuador". Mycological Research. 112 (Pt 10): 1206–1209. doi:10.1016/j.mycres.2008.04.002. PMID   18703325.
  11. 1 2 3 Boertmann D. (2010). The genus Hygrocybe (2nd ed.). Copenhagen: Danish Mycological Society. p. 200. ISBN   978-87-983581-7-6.
  12. ↑ Rotheroe M, Newton A, Evans S, Feehan J (1996). "Waxcap-grassland survey". The Mycologist. 10: 23–25. doi:10.1016/s0269-915x(96)80046-2.
  13. ↑ Seitzman BH, Ouimette A, Mixon RL, Hobbie EA, Hibbett DS (2011). "Conservation of biotrophy in Hygrophoraceae inferred from combined stable isotope and phylogenetic analyses". Mycologia. 103 (2): 280–290. doi:10.3852/10-195. PMID   21139028. S2CID   318326.
  14. 1 2 Halbwachs, Hans; Dentinger, Bryn T.M.; Detheridge, Andrew P.; Karasch, Peter; Griffith, Gareth W. (December 2013). "Hyphae of waxcap fungi colonise plant roots". Fungal Ecology. 6 (6): 487–492. doi:10.1016/j.funeco.2013.08.003. ISSN   1754-5048.
  15. ↑ Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CABI. p. 446. ISBN   978-0-85199-826-8.
  16. ↑ Griffith, G.W.; Gamarra, J.G.P.; Holden, E.M.; Mitchel, D.; Graham, A.; Evans, D.A.; Evans, S.E.; Aron, C.; Noordeloos, M.E.; Kirk, P.M.; Smith, S.L.N.; Woods, R.G.; Hale, A.D.; Easton, G.L.; Ratkowsky, D.A.; Stevens, D.P.; Halbwachs, H. (30 August 2014). "The international conservation importance of Welsh 'waxcap' grasslands". Mycosphere. 4 (5): 969–984. doi: 10.5943/mycosphere/4 .
  17. ↑ Protecting and restoring the fungi (sic) community of Lane Cove Bushland Park (PDF). Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW. 2008. ISBN   978-1-74122-965-3 . Retrieved 18 May 2018.
  18. ↑ Griffith GW, Easton GL, Jones AW (2002). "Ecology and diversity of waxcap (Hygrocybe spp) fungi". Botanical Journal of Scotland. 54: 7–22. doi:10.1080/03746600208685025. S2CID   84829857.
  19. ↑ Boa ER. (2004). Wild edible fungi: a global overview of their use and importance to people. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. p. 147. ISBN   978-92-5-105157-3.
  20. ↑ Candusso M. (1997). Fungi Europaei 6: Hygrophorus s.l.. Alassio, Italy: Libreria Basso. p. 784.
  21. ↑ Bon M. (1990). Flore mycologique d'Europe 1: Les Hygrophores (in French). Amiens Cedex: CRDP de Picardie. p. 99.
  22. ↑ Arnolds E. (1990). Genus Hygrocybe in Flora Agaricina Neerlandica 2. Lisse, Netherlands: AA Balkema. pp. 71–111. ISBN   978-90-6191-971-1.
  23. ↑ Largent DL. (1985). The Agaricales (Gilled Fungi) of California 5: Hygrophoraceae. Eureka, California: Mad River Press. p. 220. ISBN   978-0-916422-54-7.
  24. ↑ Young AM. (2005). Fungi of Australia: Hygrophoraceae. Collingwood, Victoria: CSIRO Publishing. p. 188. ISBN   978-0-643-09195-5.
  25. ↑ Horak E. (1990). "Monograph of the New Zealand Hygrophoraceae (Agaricales)" (PDF). New Zealand Journal of Botany. 28 (3): 255–309. Bibcode:1990NZJB...28..255H. doi:10.1080/0028825x.1990.10412313.[ permanent dead link ]
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