Hygrocybe appalachianensis

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Hygrocybe appalachianensis
Hygrocybe appalachianensis 352956.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Hygrophoraceae
Genus: Hygrocybe
Species:
H. appalachianensis
Binomial name
Hygrocybe appalachianensis
(Hesler & A.H.Sm.) Kronaw. (1998)
Synonyms [1]
  • Hygrophorus appalachianensisHesler & A.H.Sm. (1963)
  • Hygrophorus appalachiensis(Hesler & A.H.Sm.) Kronaw. (1998)

Hygrocybe appalachianensis, commonly known as the Appalachian waxy cap, is a gilled fungus of the waxcap family. It is found in the eastern United States, where it fruits singly, in groups, or clusters on the ground in deciduous and mixed forests. The species, described in 1963 from collections made in the Appalachian Mountains, was originally classified in the related genus Hygrophorus . It was transferred to Hygrocybe in 1998, in which it has been proposed as the type species of section Pseudofirmae.

Contents

Fruit bodies of the Appalachian waxy cap are bright purplish-red to reddish-orange. They have convex to somewhat funnel-shaped caps that are 3–7 cm (1.2–2.8 in) in diameter, held up by a cylindrical stipe up to 7 cm (2.8 in) long. The gills are thick and widely spaced, with a color similar to that of the cap or paler, and a whitish-yellow edge. Microscopically, the spores and spore-bearing cells are dimorphic—of two different sizes.

Systematics

The fungus was described as new to science in 1963 by mycologists Lexemuel Ray Hesler and Alexander H. Smith in their monograph on North American species of Hygrophorus. [2] Hesler collected the type on July 28, 1958 in Cades Cove, Great Smoky Mountains National Park (Tennessee). [2] The fungus was recorded from the same location in a fungal survey conducted about 50 years later. [3] It was transferred to the genus Hygrocybe in a 1998 paper by Ingeborg Kronawitter and Andreas Bresinsky. In this publication, the basionym was given as "appalachiensis" instead of the original spelling appalachianensis, [4] and so Hygrocybe appalachiensis is an orthographic variant spelling. [5] A reference to the type locality–the Appalachian Mountains–appears in both the specific epithet and in the common name, Appalachian waxy cap. [6]

Hygrocybe sect. Hygrocybe

Hygrocybe aff. prieta

H. appalachiensis

H. chloochlora

H. occidentalis var. scarletina

H. rosea

sect. Chlorophanae

sect. Velosae

Phylogeny of H. appalachianensis and related species showing placement in section Pseudoformae and subgenus Hygrocybe. [7]

Because of its color and habit, Hesler and Smith originally thought the unknown agaric was H. coccinea or perhaps a large form of H. miniata , but study of its microscopic characteristics revealed that it was distinct from these. They noted that the fibrillose-squamulose texture of the cap (i.e. that it appears to be made of thin fibers, or covered with small scales) and the large spores suggested a relationship with H. turundus . [2] The type of Hygrocybe appalachianensis is of an immature specimen, and the description of the basidia only accounted for microbasidia (i.e., the smaller of the two forms of basidia in the hymenium). The immature macrobasidia were described as pleurocystidia (i.e., cystidia arising from the side, or face, of the gill), [8] which Hesler and Smith described as "more or less embedded in the hymenium". [9] Microspores (the smaller of the two spore types produced by the fungus) were not accounted for in their original description, although they are present in the type. [8]

Deborah Jean Lodge and colleagues, in a reorganization of the family Hygrophoraceae based on molecular phylogenetics, proposed that H. appalachianensis should be the type species of the new section Pseudofirmae in genus Hygrocybe. [10] Species in this section, which include Hygrocybe chloochlora , H. rosea , and H. trinitensis , have sticky or glutinous caps that often have perforations in the center. Their spores and basidia are dimorphic (of two sizes), and the development of the microbasidia and macrobasidia is often staggered. The macrobasidia are club shaped and appear as if they have a stalk. [8]

Description

The gills are well spaced, somewhat decurrent, and often have whitish-yellow edges. Hygrocybe appalachiensis 230673.jpg
The gills are well spaced, somewhat decurrent, and often have whitish-yellow edges.

Fruitbodies of H. appalachianensis have convex caps that are 2–7 cm (0.8–2.8 in) in diameter. As the mushroom matures, the cap margins curl upward, and the central depression in the cap deepens, becoming more or less funnel shaped. [2] Its color is bright red to purplish-red, which fades in age. The cap margin is often whitish. [6] The well-spaced gills are initially adnate-decurrent, becoming more decurrent in age. Their color is that of the cap or paler; the gill edges are sometimes whitish-yellow. The cylindrical stipe, which measures 3–7 cm (1.2–2.8 in) long by 0.4–1.2 cm (0.2–0.5 in), is more or less the same width throughout its length. [2] Its surface texture is smooth to slightly scurfy, and it is often whitish at its base. The flesh of the mushroom lacks any distinctive taste or odor. [6] It is yellowish with orange tinges, with reddish color near the cap cuticle. [2] Alan Bessette and colleagues, in their 2012 monograph on eastern North American waxcap mushrooms, note that the mushroom is "reported to be edible". [11]

Hygrocybe appalachianensis mushrooms produce a white spore print. [2] Both the spores and the basidia are dimorphic. [8] The larger spores (macrospores) are smooth, ellipsoid, and measure 11–17.5 by 7–10  µm. They are hyaline (translucent), and inamyloid. The macrobasidia are club shaped, measuring 38–57 by 8–14 µm, and can be one- two-, three- or four-spored. [2] The ratio of macrobasidia length to macrospore length is usually less than five to one. [8] Clamp connections are present on the hyphae of several tissues of the mushroom. [2] The hyphae of the gills (the lamellar trama) are arranged in a parallel fashion. [8]

The colors of Hygrocybe mushrooms originate from betalains, a class of red and yellow indole-derived pigments. Specific betalains found in H. appalachianensis include muscaflavin, and a group of compounds called hygroaurins, which are derived from muscaflavin by conjugation with amino acids. [12]

Similar species

Hygrocybe coccinea, Scarlet Waxcap.jpg
2011-06-17 Hygrocybe cantharellus 69428 cropped.jpg
Lookalikes include H. coccinea (left) and H. cantharellus

There are several lookalike species found in North American with which the Appalachian waxy cap might be confused. Hygrocybe cantharellus is a bright red mushroom that has smaller fruit bodies and a more slender stipe than H. appalachianensis. [6] It also has smaller spores, measuring 7–12 by 4–8 µm. [13] Hygrocybe reidii , found in Europe and northeastern North America, has flesh with a sweet odor that is reminiscent of honey. This smell is sometimes weak and only noticeable when the tissue is rubbed, or when it is drying. Its scarlet cap initially has a narrow yellow-orange margin. [14]

Widespread and common in the Northern Hemisphere, the scarlet waxcap ( Hygrocybe coccinea ) is most reliably distinguished from H. appalachianensis by its smaller spores, measuring 7–11 by 4–5 µm. [15] The sphagnum waxcap, H. coccineocrenata , also has colors that are similar to H. appalachianensis. In addition to its smaller spores (8–12 by 5.5–8 µm), its fruit bodies have smaller caps, measuring 0.6–2 cm (0.2–0.8 in) in diameter, and it is typically found fruiting in mosses. [16]

Habitat and distribution

Fruit bodies of Hygrocybe appalachianensis grow singly, in groups, or clusters on the ground. Like all Hygrocybe species, the fungus is believed to be saprophytic, meaning it obtains nutrients by breaking down organic matter. It fruits in deciduous or mixed forest, typically appearing between the months of July and December. [11] Its range covers a region extending from the states Ohio and West Virginia south to South Carolina and Tennessee. [17] Its occurrence is occasional to locally common. [11]

See also

Related Research Articles

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<i>Hygrocybe conica</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Porpolomopsis lewelliniae</i> Species of fungus

Porpolomopsis lewelliniae, commonly known as the mauve splitting wax-cap, is a gilled fungus of the waxcap family found in wet forests of eastern Australia and New Zealand. The small mauve- or lilac-coloured mushrooms are fairly common and appear in moss or leaf litter on the forest floor in autumn, and are biotrophic. The key distinguishing feature is the splitting of the cap dividing down the middle of the individual gills.

<i>Hygrocybe virescens</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe virescens, commonly known as the lime-green waxy cap, is a species of agaric mushroom in the family Hygrophoraceae. The lime-green colored mushroom has a limited geographical distribution, having been reported only from California, Washington, and Mexico.

<i>Hygrophorus agathosmus</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus agathosmus, commonly known as the gray almond waxy cap or the almond woodwax, is a species of fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. It was first described by Elias Magnus Fries in 1815; Fries gave it its current name in 1838. A widespread species, it is distributed in the United States, Europe, Africa, and India, and is found growing under spruce and pine in mixed forests. The fruit bodies are characterized by a light grayish cap that measures up to 8 cm (3.1 in) in diameter, waxy gills, a dry stem, and the distinct odor of bitter almonds. An edible but bland-tasting mushroom, extracts of the fruit bodies have been shown in laboratory tests to have antimicrobial activity against various bacteria that are pathogenic to humans.

<i>Lactarius subflammeus</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius subflammeus, commonly known as the orange milk cap, is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. It is found in western North America in the late summer and fall and is especially common in the Pacific Northwest, where it grows on the ground near conifers like pine and spruce. The brightly colored fruit bodies, which are slimy or sticky, have scarlet caps when young that soon fade to brilliant orange. The stem—typically longer than the width of the cap—is also bright orange but the gills are whitish. The mushroom secretes a whitish latex when it is cut or injured.

<i>Lactarius aspideoides</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius aspideoides, commonly known as the bright yellow milkcap, is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. Distinctive characteristics of the fruit body include the sticky, pale yellow cap, and the abundant latex that stains the mushroom tissue lilac. It is found in North America.

<i>Lactarius alnicola</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius alnicola, commonly known as the golden milkcap, is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. The fruit bodies produced by the fungus are characterized by a sticky, vanilla-colored cap up to 20 cm (7.9 in) wide with a mixture of yellow tones arranged in faint concentric bands. The stem is up to 5 cm (2.0 in) long and has yellow-brown spots. When it is cut or injured, the mushroom oozes a white latex, which has an intensely peppery taste. The acrid taste of the fruit bodies renders them unpalatable. The fungus is found in the western United States and Mexico, where it grows in mycorrhizal associations with various coniferous trees species, such as spruce, pine and fir, and deciduous species such as oak and alder. It has also been collected in India. Two varieties have been named: var. pitkinensis, known from Colorado, and var. pungens, from Michigan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lactifluus deceptivus</span> Species of fungus

Lactifluus deceptivus, commonly known as the deceiving milkcap, is a common species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. It is found throughout eastern North America on the ground in coniferous forests near hemlock or deciduous forests near oak, and in oak-dominated forests of Costa Rica. It produces large mushrooms with funnel-shaped caps reaching up to 25 cm (9.8 in) in diameter, on top of hard white stems that may reach 4–10 cm (1.6–3.9 in) long and up to 3 cm (1.2 in) thick. The gills are closely spaced together and yellowish-cream in color. When young, the cap is white in all parts, but the depressed center becomes dull brownish in age and breaks up into scales. The edge of the cap has a roll of cottony tissue that collapses as the cap expands. The surface of the stem—especially near the base—has a velvety texture. The mushroom "bleeds" a milky white acrid latex when it is cut or injured. Similar milk-cap species with which L. deceptivus might be confused include Lactifluus piperatus, L. pseudodeceptivus, L. caeruleitinctus, L. subvellereus, Lactarius arcuatus and Lactarius parvulus.

<i>Hygrophorus eburneus</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus eburneus, commonly known as the ivory waxy cap or the cowboy's handkerchief, is a species of edible mushroom in the waxgill family of fungi. It is widespread in Europe and North America, and has also been collected in northern Africa. The fruit bodies are medium-sized, pure white, and when wet are covered in a layer of slime thick enough to make the mushroom difficult to pick up. The gills are broadly attached to the stem or running down it; as the family name suggests, they feel waxy when rubbed between the fingers. Like all Hygrophorus species, the fungus is mycorrhizal—a symbiotic association whereby the underground fungal mycelia penetrate and exchange nutrients with tree roots. They are common in a variety of forest types, where they grow on the ground in thickets or grassy areas. Hygrophorus eburneus is the type species of the genus Hygrophorus. A number of biologically active chemicals have been purified from the fruit bodies of the fungus, including fatty acids with bactericidal and fungicidal activity.

<i>Lactarius vinaceorufescens</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius vinaceorufescens, commonly known as the yellow-staining milkcap or the yellow-latex milky, is a poisonous species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. It produces mushrooms with pinkish-cinnamon caps up to 12 cm (4.7 in) wide held by pinkish-white stems up to 7 cm (2.8 in) long. The closely spaced whitish to pinkish buff gills develop wine-red spots in age. When it is cut or injured, the mushroom oozes a white latex that rapidly turns bright sulfur-yellow. The species, common and widely distributed in North America, grows in the ground in association with conifer trees. There are several other Lactarius species that bear resemblance to L. vinaceorufescens, but most can be distinguished by differences in staining reactions, macroscopic characteristics, or habitat.

<i>Hygrophorus bakerensis</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Hygrophorus marzuolus</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus marzuolus, commonly known as the March mushroom, is a species of fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. It is known from Asia, Europe, and North America, where it grows on the ground in mixed forests at high elevations.

<i>Hygrophorus goetzii</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus goetzii is a species of fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. It is a snowbank mushroom with a rosy-pink cap that fades to cream color in maturity.

<i>Hygrophorus purpurascens</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus purpurascens, commonly known as the purple-red waxy cap, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. Its cap has a pink background color with streaks of purplish red overlaid, and mature gills have red spots.

<i>Cuphophyllus pratensis</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus, commonly known as the olive wax cap or sheathed waxy cap, is a species of fungus in the genus Hygrophorus. The fruit bodies (mushrooms) appear from midsummer to late autumn under conifers in North American and Eurasian mountain forests. The mushrooms have olive-brown, slimy caps with dark streaks and a dark umbo; the caps measure 3 to 12 cm in diameter. Other characteristic features include a slimy stem up to 12 cm long that is spotted with ragged scales up to a ring-like zone. As its name implies, the mushroom has a waxy cap and gills. It is native to North America and across the northern regions of Europe. According to a publication by the Council of Europe, the fungus is nearly extinct in France.

<i>Hygrophorus caeruleus</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus caeruleus is a rare species of agaric fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. Found in the western United States, the mushroom is characterized by its stout fruit body including blue-tinted cap margin and stipe, blue-grey to bluish green gills, and odor of rancid meal.

<i>Hygrocybe aurantiosplendens</i> Species of mushroom

Hygrocybe aurantiosplendens, commonly known as the orange waxcap, is a gilled fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. It mainly occurs in Europe, but is also found in Siberia, and on both the East and West coasts of North America. It is uncertain if the continental ecotypes are in fact conspecific and are sometimes treated as distinct species.

Cuphophyllus lepidopus is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of scalyfoot waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

References

  1. ↑ "Hygrophorus appalachianensis Hesler & A.H. Sm". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2016-02-13.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Hesler LR, Smith AH (1963). North American Species of Hygrophorus. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press. pp. 147–149.
  3. ↑ Baird R, Stokes CE, Wood-Jones A, Alexander M, Watson C, Taylor G, Johnson K, Remaley T, Diehl S (2014). "Fleshy saprobic and ectomycorrhizal fungal communities associated with healthy and declining eastern hemlock stands in Great Smoky Mountains National Park". Southeastern Naturalist. 13 (S6): 192–218. doi:10.1656/058.013.s613. S2CID   128469820.
  4. ↑ Kronawitter I, Bresinsky A (1998). "Mikroskopische Merkmale der Gattung Hygrocybe – eine Auswahl" [Microscopic characters in Hygrocybe – a selection]. Regensburger Mykologische Schriften (in German). 8: 53–92.
  5. ↑ "Hygrophorus appalachiensis Hesler & A.H. Sm". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2016-02-13.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Roody WC. (2003). Mushrooms of West Virginia and the Central Appalachians. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. p. 118. ISBN   978-0-8131-9039-6.
  7. ↑ Lodge et al. (2014), p. 22.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lodge et al. (2014), pp. 29–30.
  9. ↑ Hesler and Smith, 1963, p. 17.
  10. ↑ Lodge et al. (2014), p. 4.
  11. 1 2 3 Bessette et al. (2012), pp. 14–15.
  12. ↑ Steglich W, Strack D (1991). "Chapter 1 Betalains". In Brossi A. (ed.). The Alkaloids: Chemistry and Pharmacology. San Diego; London: Academic Press. p. 53. ISBN   978-0-08-086563-8.
  13. ↑ Bessette et al, p. 20.
  14. ↑ Kibby G, Ainsworth M (2008). "A tribute to Derek Reid: British Fungi named after him". Field Mycology. 9 (2): 51–54. doi: 10.1016/S1468-1641(10)60408-2 .
  15. ↑ Bessette et al. (2012), p. 23.
  16. ↑ Bessette et al. (2012), p. 24.
  17. ↑ Bessette A. "Key to Waxcap Mushrooms of Eastern North America" (PDF). Long Island Mycological Club. p. 11. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-02-15.

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