Hygrophorus

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Hygrophorus
Hygrophorus eburneus-pastorino.JPG
Hygrophorus eburneus
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Hygrophoraceae
Genus: Hygrophorus
Fr. (1836)
Type species
Hygrophorus eburneus
(Bull.) Fr. (1838)
Synonyms

Hygrophorus is a genus of agarics (gilled mushrooms) in the family Hygrophoraceae. Called "woodwaxes" in the UK or "waxy caps" (together with Hygrocybe species) in North America, basidiocarps (fruit bodies) are typically fleshy, often with slimy caps and lamellae that are broadly attached to decurrent. All species are ground-dwelling and ectomycorrhizal (forming an association with living trees) and are typically found in woodland. Around 100 species are recognized worldwide. Fruit bodies of several species are considered edible and are sometimes offered for sale in local markets.

Contents

Taxonomy

History

Hygrophorus was first published in 1836 by Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries. The generic name is derived from the Greek ῦγρὁς (= moist) + φόρος (= bearer), with reference to the slimy caps found in many species. [1] Fries (1849) subsequently split the genus into three subgenera: Limacium, Camarophyllus, and Hygrocybe . The last of these is now recognized as a genus in its own right, but was frequently included within Hygrophorus until the 1970s. [1] [2] Camarophyllus (type species Hygrophorus camarophyllus ) and Limacium were also raised to the rank of genus, but are regarded as synonyms of Hygrophorus. [3] [4] [5] [6] Camarophyllus sensu Singer (based on Hygrocybe pratensis ) is, however, a synonym of Hygrocybe (or Cuphophyllus).

Current status

Recent molecular research, based on cladistic analysis of DNA sequences, suggests that Hygrophorus (minus Hygrocybe) is a monophyletic (and hence natural) genus. Only a few species, however, have been sequenced to date. [7]

Description

Fruit bodies of Hygrophorus species are all agaricoid, most (but not all) having smooth caps that are viscid to glutinous when damp. The lamellae beneath the cap are usually distant, thick, waxy, and broadly attached to decurrent. The stems of Hygrophorus species often have traces of a glutinous veil, sometimes forming an equally glutinous ring or ring-zone. The spore print is white. Microscopically, Hygrocybe species lack true cystidia and have smooth, inamyloid basidiospores. [8]

Habitat and distribution

Species of Hygrophorus are ectomycorrhizal, most forming associations with trees (both broadleaf and conifer) and hence typically found in woodlands. Many appear to be host specific, Hygrophorus cossus , for example, occurring with oak and H. speciosus with larch. [2] [9]

Species are distributed worldwide, from the tropics to the sub-polar regions. Around 100 have been described to date. [10]

As food

Fruit bodies of a few species are considered edible and are collected and consumed locally (sometimes sold in markets) in Spain and eastern Europe, China and Bhutan, and Central America . [11]

Literature

No comprehensive monograph of the genus has yet been published. In Europe, however, species of Hygrophorus have been illustrated and described in an Italian guide by Candusso (1997). [9] European species have also been covered, more briefly, in descriptive French keys by Bon (1990). [12] Dutch species were illustrated and described by Arnolds (1990). [8] No equivalent modern guides have been published for North America, the most recent being by Hesler & Smith (1963). [2] There is, however, a guide to Californian species by Largent (1985). [13] In Australia, Hygrophorus species have been illustrated and described by Young (2005) [14] and in New Zealand by Horak (1990). [15]

Hygrophorus paupertinus Sm. & Hesl. has a strong, penetrating fecal-like odor. Chemical analysis shows that three odoriferous compounds; 1-octen-3-ol, indole and 3-chloroindole are emitted from sporocarps. Indole and 3-chloroindole have fecal-like odors. This is the first identification of 3-chloroindole from a terrestrial organism. [16]

Species

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hygrophoraceae</span> Family of fungi

The Hygrophoraceae are a family of fungi in the order Agaricales. Originally conceived as containing white-spored, thick-gilled agarics, including Hygrophorus and Hygrocybe species, DNA evidence has extended the limits of the family, so it now contains not only agarics, but also basidiolichens and corticioid fungi. Species are thus diverse and are variously ectomycorrhizal, lichenized, associated with mosses, or saprotrophic. The family contains 34 genera and over 1000 species. None is of any great economic importance, though fruit bodies of some Hygrocybe and Hygrophorus species are considered edible and may be collected for sale in local markets.

<i>Hygrocybe</i> Genus of fungi

Hygrocybe is a genus of agarics in the family Hygrophoraceae. Called waxcaps in English, basidiocarps are often brightly coloured and have dry to waxy caps, white spores, and smooth, ringless stems. In Europe they are characteristic of old, unimproved grasslands which are a declining habitat, making many Hygrocybe species of conservation concern. Four of these waxcap-grassland species, Hygrocybe citrinovirens, H. punicea, H. spadicea, and H. splendidissima, are assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Elsewhere waxcaps are more typically found in woodlands. Most are ground-dwelling and all are believed to be biotrophs. Around 150 species are recognized worldwide. Fruit bodies of several Hygrocybe species are considered edible and are sometimes offered for sale in local markets.

<i>Hygrocybe conica</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe conica is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. In the UK it has been given the recommended English name of blackening waxcap, since all parts of the basidiocarp blacken with age. In North America it is commonly known as the witch's hat, conical wax cap or conical slimy cap. Hygrocybe conica is known to be a complex of at least eleven closely related species and as such is widespread in Europe, North America, Asia, and elsewhere.

<i>Cuphophyllus</i> Genus of fungi

Cuphophyllus is a genus of agaric fungi in the family Hygrophoraceae. Cuphophyllus species belong to a group known as waxcaps in English, sometimes also waxy caps in North America or waxgills in New Zealand. In Europe, Cuphophyllus species are typical of waxcap grasslands, a declining habitat due to changing agricultural practices. As a result, four species, Cuphophyllus atlanticus, C. colemannianus, C. lacmus, and C. lepidopus are of global conservation concern and are listed as "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Pholiota</i> Genus of mushrooms

Pholiota is a genus of small to medium-sized, fleshy mushrooms in the family Strophariaceae. They are saprobes that typically live on wood. The genus has a widespread distribution, especially in temperate regions, and contains about 150 species.

<i>Hygrocybe virescens</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe virescens, commonly known as the lime-green waxy cap, is a species of agaric mushroom in the family Hygrophoraceae. The lime-green colored mushroom has a limited geographical distribution, having been reported only from California, Washington, and Mexico.

<i>Hygrophorus agathosmus</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus agathosmus, commonly known as the gray almond waxy cap or the almond woodwax, is a species of fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. It was first described by Elias Magnus Fries in 1815; Fries gave it its current name in 1838. A widespread species, it is distributed in the United States, Europe, Africa, and India, and is found growing under spruce and pine in mixed forests. The fruit bodies are characterized by a light grayish cap that measures up to 8 cm (3.1 in) in diameter, waxy gills, a dry stem, and the distinct odor of bitter almonds. An edible but bland-tasting mushroom, extracts of the fruit bodies have been shown in laboratory tests to have antimicrobial activity against various bacteria that are pathogenic to humans.

<i>Cystolepiota bucknallii</i> Species of fungus

Cystolepiota bucknallii is a species of basidiomycete fungus of the genus Cystolepiota. Found throughout Europe, it is a rare fungus occurring in deciduous forests. The small fruit bodies bear a distinctive smell of coal gas and appear in autumn on damp ground. It is not an edible mushroom.

<i>Hygrophorus eburneus</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus eburneus, commonly known as the ivory waxy cap or the cowboy's handkerchief, is a species of edible mushroom in the waxgill family of fungi. It is widespread in Europe and North America, and has also been collected in northern Africa. The fruit bodies are medium-sized, pure white, and when wet are covered in a layer of slime thick enough to make the mushroom difficult to pick up. The gills are broadly attached to the stem or running down it; as the family name suggests, they feel waxy when rubbed between the fingers. Like all Hygrophorus species, the fungus is mycorrhizal—a symbiotic association whereby the underground fungal mycelia penetrate and exchange nutrients with tree roots. They are common in a variety of forest types, where they grow on the ground in thickets or grassy areas. Hygrophorus eburneus is the type species of the genus Hygrophorus. A number of biologically active chemicals have been purified from the fruit bodies of the fungus, including fatty acids with bactericidal and fungicidal activity.

<i>Hygrophorus bakerensis</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus bakerensis, commonly known as the Mt. Baker waxy cap, the brown almond waxy cap or the tawny almond waxy cap, is a species of fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. It is characterized by its medium to large, relatively slender-statured fruit bodies with an almond odor, and growth often on or near rotting conifer wood. The slimy cap is brown in the center and cream to white near its curved edges. The gills and the stem are white, and in moist environments are often covered with droplets of a translucent liquid. The mushroom is known only from the United States, where it is common in coniferous forests throughout the Pacific Northwest. It was initially collected in Washington State on Mount Baker, a volcano. Although edible, the mushroom is not considered to be of high quality.

<i>Hygrophorus purpurascens</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus purpurascens, commonly known as the purple-red waxy cap, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. Its cap has a pink background color with streaks of purplish red overlaid, and mature gills have red spots.

<i>Gliophorus</i> Genus of fungi

Gliophorus is a genus of agaric fungi in the family Hygrophoraceae. Gliophorus species belong to a group known as waxcaps in English, sometimes also waxy caps in North America or waxgills in New Zealand. In Europe, Gliophorus species are typical of waxcap grasslands, a declining habitat due to changing agricultural practices. As a result, two species, Gliophorus europerplexus and Gliophorus reginae, are of global conservation concern and are listed as "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Hygrocybe chlorophana</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe chlorophana is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of golden waxcap in the UK. The species has a largely north temperate distribution, occurring in grassland in Europe and in woodland in North America and northern Asia; it has also been reported from mountainous areas of southern Australia. It typically produces basidiocarps in the autumn. In a few European countries, H. chlorophana is of conservation concern, appearing on national red lists of threatened fungi.

<i>Cuphophyllus pratensis</i> Species of fungus

Cuphophyllus pratensis is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of meadow waxcap in the UK and in North America has variously been called the meadow waxy cap, salmon waxy cap, and butter meadowcap. The species has a widespread, mainly temperate distribution, occurring in grassland in Europe and in woodland elsewhere. The basidiocarps are edible and are occasionally collected and sold commercially.

<i>Hygrocybe quieta</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe quieta is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of oily waxcap in the UK. The species has a European distribution and typically occurs in grassland where it produces basidiocarps in the autumn. In several countries, H. quieta is of conservation concern, appearing on national red lists of threatened fungi.

<i>Gloioxanthomyces nitidus</i> Species of fungus

Gloioxanthomyces nitidus, commonly known as the shining waxcap, is a species of fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. It was originally described by Miles Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis in 1853 as a species of Hygrophorus. The specific epithet nitidus means "shining". It was one of two species transferred to the newly created genus Gloioxanthomyces in 2013. Fruitbodies have convex, apricot-yellow to orange caps that are 1–4 cm (0.4–1.6 in) in diameter. The pale yellow, waxy gills are decurrent, with a somewhat distant spacing. Other than the gills and the base of the stipe, the bright coloring of the fruitbody fades with age. Spores are elliptical, smooth, and measure 6–10 by 4–6 µm. It is found in North America, where it grows on the ground in groups in coniferous or mixed forests. It prefers bogs, swamps, and similar moist habitats.

<i>Hygrocybe splendidissima</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe splendidissima, is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Splendid Waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Hygrocybe appalachianensis</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe appalachianensis, commonly known as the Appalachian waxy cap, is a gilled fungus of the waxcap family. It is found in the eastern United States, where it fruits singly, in groups, or clusters on the ground in deciduous and mixed forests. The species, described in 1963 from collections made in the Appalachian Mountains, was originally classified in the related genus Hygrophorus. It was transferred to Hygrocybe in 1998, in which it has been proposed as the type species of section Pseudofirmae.

<i>Cuphophyllus canescens</i> Species of fungus

Cuphophyllus canescens is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae, known from North America. In its wide sense it has been assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Cuphophyllus colemannianus</i> Species of fungus

Cuphophyllus colemannianus is a species of agaric in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of toasted waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

References

  1. 1 2 Rea C. (1922). British Basidiomycetaceae: A Handbook of the Larger British Fungi. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 799.
  2. 1 2 3 Hesler LR, Smith AH (1963). North American species of Hygrophorus. University of Tennessee Press. p. 416.
  3. ↑ "Camarophyllus (Fr.) P. Kumm". Index Fungorum. CAB International. Retrieved 2011-09-25.
  4. ↑ "Camarophyllus (Fr.) P. Kumm". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2011-09-25.
  5. ↑ "Limacium (Fr. ex Rabenh.) P. Kumm". Index Fungorum. CAB International. Retrieved 2011-09-25.
  6. ↑ "Limacium (Fr. ex Rabenh.) P. Kumm". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2011-09-25.
  7. ↑ Matheny PB, Curtis JM, Hofstetter V, Aime MC, Moncalvo JM, Ge ZW, Slot JC, Ammirati JF, Baroni TJ, Bougher NL, Hughes KW, Lodge DJ, Kerrigan RW, Seidl MT, Aanen DK, DeNitis M, Daniele GM, Desjardin DE, Kropp BR, Norvell LL, Parker A, Vellinga EC, Vilgalys R, Hibbett DS (2006). "Major clades of Agaricales: a multilocus phylogenetic overview" (PDF). Mycologia. 98 (6): 982–95. doi:10.3852/mycologia.98.6.982. PMID   17486974. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-03.
  8. 1 2 Arnolds E. (1990). Genus Hygrophorus in Flora Agaricina Neerlandica 2. Lisse, Netherlands: AA Balkema. pp. 115–133. ISBN   90-6191-971-1.
  9. 1 2 Candusso M. (1997). Fungi Europaei 6: Hygrophorus s.l.. Alassio, Italy: Libreria Basso. p. 784.
  10. ↑ Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. p. 446. ISBN   978-0-85199-826-8.
  11. ↑ Boa ER. (2004). Wild Edible Fungi: A Global Overview of Their Use and Importance to People. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. p. 147. ISBN   92-5-105157-7.
  12. ↑ Bon M. (1990). Flore mycologique d'Europe 1: Les Hygrophores (in French). Amiens Cedex: CRDP de Picardie. p. 99.
  13. ↑ Largent DL. (1985). The Agaricales (Gilled Fungi) of California 5: Hygrophoraceae. Eureka, California: Mad River Press. p. 220. ISBN   0-916422-54-2.
  14. ↑ Young AM. (2005). Fungi of Australia: Hygrophoraceae. Collingwood, Victoria: CSIRO Publishing. p. 188. ISBN   978-0-643-09195-5.
  15. ↑ Horak E. (1990). "Monograph of the New Zealand Hygrophoraceae (Agaricales)" (PDF). New Zealand Journal of Botany. 28 (3): 255–309. Bibcode:1990NZJB...28..255H. doi:10.1080/0028825x.1990.10412313.[ permanent dead link ]
  16. ↑ Wood, William F.; Smith, Joshua; Wayman, Kjirsten; Largent, David L. (2003). "Indole and 3-chloroindole: The source of the disagreeable odor of Hygrophorus paupertinus". Mycologia. 95 (5): 807–808. doi:10.2307/3762008. JSTOR   3762008. PMID   21148987.
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