Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus

Last updated

Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus
2010-08-11 Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus 2.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Hygrophoraceae
Genus: Hygrophorus
Species:
H. olivaceoalbus
Binomial name
Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus
Fr. (Fr.) (1838)
Synonyms [1]

Agaricus adustus Batsch (1783)
Agaricus olivaceoalbusFr. (1815)
Agaricus limacinus subsp. olivaceoalbus(Fr.) Pers. (1828)
Limacium olivaceoalbum(Fr.) P.Kumm. (1871)

Contents

Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus
Information icon.svg
Gills icon.png Gills on hymenium
Umbonate cap icon.svg Cap is umbonate
Adnate gills icon2.svgDecurrent gills icon2.svg Hymenium is adnate or decurrent
Bare stipe icon.svgRing stipe icon.svg Stipe is bare or has a ring
Transparent spore print icon.svg
Spore print is white
Mycorrhizal fungus.svgEcology is mycorrhizal
Mycomorphbox Choice.pngMycomorphbox Caution.pngEdibility is choice but not recommended

Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus, commonly known as the olive wax cap or sheathed waxy cap, [2] is a species of fungus in the genus Hygrophorus . The fruit bodies (mushrooms) appear from midsummer to late autumn under conifers in North American and Eurasian mountain forests. The mushrooms have olive-brown, slimy caps with dark streaks and a dark umbo; the caps measure 3 to 12 cm (1+18 to 4+34 in) in diameter. Other characteristic features include a slimy stem up to 12 cm (4+34 in) long that is spotted with ragged scales up to a ring-like zone. As its name implies, the mushroom has a waxy cap and gills. It is native to North America and across the northern regions of Europe. According to a publication by the Council of Europe, the fungus is nearly extinct in France.

Although Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus is edible, opinions are divided regarding its taste. Besides its usage as an edible mushroom, the fungus possesses antibiotic-like compounds.

Taxonomy and classification

The species was first officially described as Agaricus olivaceoalbus by Elias Fries in 1815. [3] It had earlier been published as Agaricus adustus by August Johann Georg Karl Batsch in 1783, [4] but this was an illegitimate renaming of Agaricus brunneus published in 1774 by Jacob Christian Schäffer. [5] [6] It received its current scientific name when Fries transferred it to the genus Hygrophorus in 1838. [7] Paul Kummer moved the species to Limacium in 1871, [8] but this genus has since been sunk into synonymy with Hygrophorus. [9]

Several varieties of H. olivaceoalbus have been proposed: [1] [10]

VarietyAuthorityComments
var. olivaceoalbus(Fr.) Fr. (1883) Nominate taxon
var. candidus Quél. (1881) [11] A form described from the Jura Mountains (France) with fine fibrillose spines at the top of the stem.
var. obesus(Bres.) Rea (1922) [12] Named for its stout stem, this is now synonymous with Hygrophorus latitabundus . [13]
var. intermedius Hesler & A.H.Sm. (1963)Spores react hyaline with potassium hydroxide. It is found under Engelmann spruces in Colorado.
var. gracilis Maire (1933) [14] According to the original description, this variety has smaller spores (9–13 × 6–6.5 μm) than the nominate, and appears in silica-containing soil under pine and beech trees in Spain. Hesler and Smith, however, refer to smaller fruit bodies and larger spores than in the nominate taxon (10–14 × 5.5–7.5 μm); additionally, the hyphae of the cap cuticle react dark brown with Melzer's reagent. According to Hesler and Smith, it occurs under firs in Oregon, Washington, Michigan and British Columbia. [10]

Together with H. pustulatus , H. persoonii , H. mesotephrus and H. latitabundus , H. olivaceoalbus form the section Olivaceoumbrini within the genus Hygrophorus. [15] The fungi of this section have greasy to slimy caps and stems. Their caps are darkish brown grey, olive or orange, and their stems are nattered or somewhat distinctly ringed. [16]

Common names that have been used for the mushroom include the "slimy-sheathed waxy cap", the "olive hygrophorus", [17] the "sheated waxgill" [18] and the "olive wax cap". [19] The specific epithet olivaceoalbus is derived from the Latin words for olive-brown (olivaceus) and white (albus). [12]

Characteristics

Fruit body

Below the ring-like annular zone the stem is nattered; above, it is white and smooth. Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus 187544.jpg
Below the ring-like annular zone the stem is nattered; above, it is white and smooth.

The cap of H. olivaceoalbus is 3–12 cm (1+184+34 in) wide and is hemispherical in young fungi; they become flatter and wider with age, but they keep their characteristic dark umbo. [10] Underneath the slimy grey to sooty-brown surface, the cap cuticle is streaked with fine, dark grey radially arranged fibers. [18] Young fruit bodies are covered by two velum layers; the inner velum, composed of dark fibrils, becomes a ring or sheath (annular zone) on the stem that is covered by the gelatinous outer layer. [10]

The fruit body has a long stem ranging from 3 to 12 cm (1+18 to 4+34 in), a diameter of 1–3 cm (381+18 in) and a somewhat slimy surface in wet weather. [20] It is often wavy or bent. [21] The base of the stem is sometimes slimmer than near its apex. Above the annular zone, the stem is smooth and whitish. It is covered by two layers of tissue: the exterior sticky layer, and the comparatively thin interior layer that consists of flaky fibres, similar to those under the cap's slime layer, with which they are initially linked. As the stem grows and increases in length, the interior layer becomes ripped, and breaks up into ragged dark concentric bands. The gills of H. olivaceoalbus are thick, widely spaced and adnate (broadly attached) to decurrent (extending slightly down the stem); they are white (slightly greyish on the base), and have a waxy surface. [20]

The flesh of the mushroom is smooth, thin and white. The taste and odor are mild and have no distinct smell. [22] When treated with a dilute solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or sulfuric acid, the flesh turns reddish. The spore print of H. olivaceoalbus is white. [10]

Microscopic characteristics

The spores are 9–12 × 5–6  µm, ellipsoid, and are not amyloid; their surface is smooth. They are yellow in Melzer's reagent. The basidia have dimension of 46–62 × 7–10 µm, and are tetrasporic with short, stubby sterigmata. They have neither pleurocystidia nor cheilocystidia. [10]

The cap cuticle has a width of 250 to 450 µm and consists of loopshaped, dark hyphae with a width from 2 to 3 µm, which form an ixocutis (a horizontal layer of hyphae embedded in slime) and possess clamp connections; the fungus has no hypocutis. The gill trama consists of hyphae about 3 to 8 µm thick; the cap tissue comprises radial hyphae. [10] [22]

The mycorrhiza, formed from H. olivaceoalbus as a fungal partner, such as the Piceirhiza gelatinosa, is white and has a smooth, waxy surface, with several layers of hyphae layered around the tree's roots; sometimes this mycorrhiza shows hypertrophy. The hyphae are covered with a jellylike mass that is secreted from the outer walls of the hyphae. [23] [24] The ectomycorrhizae can reach lengths of up to 10 mm (38 in) and have few side branches; many older ectomycorrhizae have a cavity at the tip that resembles a hole. [25]

Similar species

Hygrophorus lookalikes

Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus shows similarities between other closely related fungi of the genus Hygrophorus, some of which have only minor differences in physical features. [22] Examples include H. pustulatus, H. inocybiformis , H. tephroleucus or H. morrisii . In the field, H. olivaceoalbus is distinguished by a combination of features including the double velum, the dark streaks on the slimy cap, the nattering of the stem, and growth under pines, [21] as well as by microscopic characteristics. There is no risk of confusing it with toxic fungi. [26]

Hygrophorus persoonii and H. olivaceoalbus produce different mycosterine (sterol) and their flesh react differently with the addition of sodium hydroxide (red on H. olivaceoalbus versus olive green on H. persoonii). Furthermore, H. persoonii favours oaks as a mycorrhizal partner. [27] The North American species H. inocybiformis produces a smaller fruit body with caps measuring 3–6 cm (1+182+38 in) wide, and dry stems that measure 3–6 cm (1+182+38 in) long by 0.5–1.2 cm (1412 in) thick. [28]

Ecology and distribution

Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus creates mycorrhizae with conifers. In the West Coast of the United States, associations are most common with Sitka spruces and giant redwoods. [22] In the Rocky Mountains it associates with Engelmann spruce and blue spruce, [20] and in northeast North America with hemlocks. [22] It usually favours acidic and chalky ground with mosses in higher altitudes as well as conifer forests and occasionally mixed forests. [29] The fruit bodies are often found singly, but may also grow in clusters. [18]

The range of H. olivaceoalbus stretches across the northern and western North America [22] as well as across Europe (except the Mediterranean region) and Russia. [29] The fungus typically fruits between late summer and early winter, [20] and occasionally (depending on the geographical location and climate) as early as June or right through December. [10] The population is currently not endangered, except in France, where it is almost extinct. [30]

Importance

Edibility

Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus finds a use especially in the kitchen, but the indistinct taste of the fruit bodies have received a mixed reception overall. Kate Mitchel considers the waxy surface "unappetizing", while David Arora described the taste as "bland and slimy". [20] Some authors suggest removing the cap cuticle before eating. [31] [32] Overall, several authors call the mushroom edible, but caution is still required, as "not everyone can eat them". [18] The popularity of this fungus varies from one region to another. It is more commonly consumed in Europe than in North America, [21] and is differently coveted within Europe. For example, in Spain the fungi is more highly appreciated in Catalonia; mushroom dishes in this region are more common than in the rest of Spain. [33]

Cyclopentenonderivate, isolated from H. olivaceoalbus and their semi-synthetic aetylderivate, with R , R and R = H or Ac and n = 14 or 16 Cyclopentenonderivate.svg
Cyclopentenonderivate, isolated from H. olivaceoalbus and their semi-synthetic aetylderivate, with R , R and R = H or Ac and n = 14 or 16

Pharmacology

Derivates of cyclopentenones, the so-called hygrophorones, can be obtained from the fruit body of H. olivaceoalbus; the fungus produces them as secondary metabolites. The detected compounds are polyols and have an antifungal and antibacterial effect, especially in connection with Gram-positive bacteria. H. olivaceoalbus is therefore an important source of antibiotics, especially as the hygrophorones also show an effect on bacterial cultures that are resistant against contemporary antibiotics such as methicillin, ciprofloxacin or vancomycin. [34] The fungus has been used in traditional Chinese medicine, where it is known for its curing components, such as 4-, 6- or 4,5,6-tri-O-acetyl hygrophorones B14. [35] [36]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Partial veil</span> Mushroom anatomy

In mycology, a partial veil is a temporary structure of tissue found on the fruiting bodies of some basidiomycete fungi, typically agarics. Its role is to isolate and protect the developing spore-producing surface, represented by gills or tubes, found on the lower surface of the cap. A partial veil, in contrast to a universal veil, extends from the stem surface to the cap edge. The partial veil later disintegrates, once the fruiting body has matured and the spores are ready for dispersal. It might then give rise to a stem ring, or fragments attached to the stem or cap edge. In some mushrooms, both a partial veil and a universal veil may be present.

<i>Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca</i> Species of fungus in the family Hygrophoropsidaceae

Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca, commonly known as the false chanterelle, is a species of fungus in the family Hygrophoropsidaceae. It is found across several continents, growing in woodland and heathland, and sometimes on woodchips used in gardening and landscaping. Fruit bodies (mushrooms) are yellow–orange, with a funnel-shaped cap up to 8 cm across that has a felt-like surface. The thin, often forked gills on the underside of the cap run partway down the length of the otherwise smooth stipe. Reports on the mushroom's edibility vary – it is considered poisonous, but has historically been eaten internationally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydnellum peckii</span> Species of fungus

Hydnellum peckii is a fungus in the genus Hydnellum of the family Bankeraceae. It is a hydnoid species, producing spores on the surface of vertical spines or tooth-like projections that hang from the undersurface of the fruit bodies. It is found in North America, Europe, and was recently discovered in Iran (2008) and Korea (2010). Hydnellum peckii is a mycorrhizal species, and forms mutually beneficial relationships with a variety of coniferous trees, growing on the ground singly, scattered, or in fused masses.

<i>Gomphidius glutinosus</i> Species of fungus

Gomphidius glutinosus, commonly known as the slimy spike-cap, is a gilled mushroom found in Europe & North America. Although it has gills, it is a member of the order Boletales, along with the boletes. The fruiting bodies sprout in pine, fir and spruce woodland in Europe in autumn. Initially, are completely covered with a slimy veil, breaking through to reveal a greyish or brownish-capped mushroom with decurrent greyish gills which sometimes resembles a child's top. Opinions differ on the suitability of this mushroom for the table, some guides hold it in high regard, while others view it with caution.

<i>Suillus lakei</i> Species of fungus

Suillus lakei, commonly known as the matte Jack, Lake's bolete, or the western painted Suillus, is a species of fungus in the family Suillaceae. It is characterized by the distinctive reddish-brown tufted fibers or small scales on the cap, and the presence of a woolly veil on the stem. The caps can reach diameters of up to 15 cm, while the stems are between 6 and 12 cm long and usually 1–3 cm thick. On the underside of the cap is a layer of spongy yellow to yellow-brown angular pores; these pores are covered with a whitish partial veil when young. A mycorrhizal fungus, S. lakei grows in association with Douglas fir, and is found where this tree occurs. It is native to northwestern North America, but has been introduced to Europe, South America, and New Zealand. The mushroom is edible, but opinions vary considerably as to its quality.

<i>Mycena acicula</i> Species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae

Mycena acicula, commonly known as the orange bonnet, or the coral spring Mycena, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. It is found in Asia, the Caribbean, North America and Europe. The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, of the fungus grow on dead twigs and other woody debris of forest floors, especially along streams and other wet places. They have small orange-red caps, up to 1 cm (0.4 in) in diameter, held by slender yellowish stems up to 6 cm (2.4 in) long. The gills are pale yellow with a whitish edge. Several other Mycena species look similar, but may be distinguished by differences in size and/or microscopic characteristics. M. acicula is considered inedible because of its small size.

<i>Hygrophorus subalpinus</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus subalpinus, commonly known as the subalpine waxycap, is a species of white snowbank fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. Found in the mountains of western North America, it is found growing on the ground under conifers, usually near snowbanks.

<i>Pholiota flammans</i> Species of fungus

Pholiota flammans, commonly known as the yellow pholiota, the flaming Pholiota, or the flame scalecap, is a basidiomycete agaric mushroom of the genus Pholiota. Its fruit body is golden-yellow in color throughout, while its cap and stem are covered in sharp scales. As it is a saprobic fungus, the fruit bodies typically appear in clusters on the stumps of dead coniferous trees. P. flammans is distributed throughout Europe, North America, and Asia in boreal and temperate regions. Its edibility has not been clarified.

<i>Hygrophorus agathosmus</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus agathosmus, commonly known as the gray almond waxy cap or the almond woodwax, is a species of fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. It was first described by Elias Magnus Fries in 1815; Fries gave it its current name in 1838. A widespread species, it is distributed in the United States, Europe, Africa, and India, and is found growing under spruce and pine in mixed forests. The fruit bodies are characterized by a light grayish cap that measures up to 8 cm (3.1 in) in diameter, waxy gills, a dry stem, and the distinct odor of bitter almonds. An edible but bland-tasting mushroom, extracts of the fruit bodies have been shown in laboratory tests to have antimicrobial activity against various bacteria that are pathogenic to humans.

<i>Hygrophorus eburneus</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus eburneus, commonly known as the ivory waxy cap or the cowboy's handkerchief, is a species of edible mushroom in the waxgill family of fungi. It is widespread in Europe and North America, and has also been collected in northern Africa. The fruit bodies are medium-sized, pure white, and when wet are covered in a layer of slime thick enough to make the mushroom difficult to pick up. The gills are broadly attached to the stem or running down it; as the family name suggests, they feel waxy when rubbed between the fingers. Like all Hygrophorus species, the fungus is mycorrhizal—a symbiotic association whereby the underground fungal mycelia penetrate and exchange nutrients with tree roots. They are common in a variety of forest types, where they grow on the ground in thickets or grassy areas. Hygrophorus eburneus is the type species of the genus Hygrophorus. A number of biologically active chemicals have been purified from the fruit bodies of the fungus, including fatty acids with bactericidal and fungicidal activity.

<i>Hygrophorus bakerensis</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus bakerensis, commonly known as the Mt. Baker waxy cap, the brown almond waxy cap or the tawny almond waxy cap, is a species of fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. It is characterized by its medium to large, relatively slender-statured fruit bodies with an almond odor, and growth often on or near rotting conifer wood. The slimy cap is brown in the center and cream to white near its curved edges. The gills and the stem are white, and in moist environments are often covered with droplets of a translucent liquid. The mushroom is known only from the United States, where it is common in coniferous forests throughout the Pacific Northwest. It was initially collected in Washington State on Mount Baker, a volcano. Although edible, the mushroom is not considered to be of high quality.

<i>Mycena aurantiomarginata</i> Species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae common in Europe and North America

Mycena aurantiomarginata, commonly known as the golden-edge bonnet, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. First formally described in 1803, it was given its current name in 1872. Widely distributed, it is common in Europe and North America, and has also been collected in North Africa, Central America, and Japan. The fungus is saprobic, and produces fruit bodies (mushrooms) that grow on the floor of coniferous forests. The mushrooms have a bell-shaped to conical cap up to 2 cm in diameter, set atop a slender stipe up to 6 cm long with yellow to orange hairs at the base. The fungus is named after its characteristic bright orange gill edges. A microscopic characteristic is the club-shaped cystidia that are covered with numerous spiky projections, resembling a mace. The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined. M. aurantiomarginata can be distinguished from similar Mycena species by differences in size, color, and substrate. A 2010 publication reported the discovery and characterization of a novel pigment named mycenaaurin A, isolated from the mushroom. The pigment is responsible for its color, and it has antibiotic activity that may function to prevent certain bacteria from growing on the mushroom.

<i>Collybia cirrhata</i> Species of fungus

Collybia cirrhata is a species of fungus in the family Tricholomataceae of the order Agaricales. The species was first described in the scientific literature in 1786, but was not validly named until 1803. Found in Europe, Northern Eurasia, and North America, it is known from temperate, boreal, and alpine or arctic habitats. It is a saprobic species that grows in clusters on the decaying or blackened remains of other mushrooms. The fruit bodies are small, with whitish convex to flattened caps up to 11 mm in diameter, narrow white gills, and slender whitish stems 8–25 mm long and up to 2 mm (0.08 in) thick. C. cirrhata can be distinguished from the other two members of Collybia by the absence of a sclerotium at the base of the stem. The mushroom, although not poisonous, is considered unpalatable or of unknown edibility.

<i>Hygrophorus goetzii</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus goetzii is a species of fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. It is a snowbank mushroom with a rosy-pink cap that fades to cream color in maturity.

<i>Hygrophorus purpurascens</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus purpurascens, commonly known as the purple-red waxy cap, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. Its cap has a pink background color with streaks of purplish red overlaid, and mature gills have red spots.

<i>Cortinarius vanduzerensis</i> Species of fungus

Cortinarius vanduzerensis is a species of mushroom in the family Cortinariaceae. Described as new to science in 1972, it is known only from the Pacific Northwest region of North America, where it grows under conifers such as spruce, hemlock, and Douglas-fir. The fruit bodies of the fungus, or mushrooms, have a slimy dark chestnut-brown cap that becomes deeply radially grooved or corrugated in maturity, and reaches diameters of up to 8 cm. The gills on the underside of the cap are initially pinkish-buff before becoming pale brown when the spores mature. The stem is lavender, measuring 10–18 cm (4–7 in) long and 1–2 cm thick. The mushroom produces a rusty-brown spore print, with individual spores measuring 12–14 by 7–8 micrometers. The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined, and it has been described as "much too slippery to be of value".

<i>Hygrophorus hypothejus</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus hypothejus, commonly known as the olive-brown waxy cap, or herald of the winter, is an edible species of fungus in the genus Hygrophorus native to Europe. It appears in late autumn in coniferous forests, often with the first frosts.

<i>Hygrophorus erubescens</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus erubescens, commonly known as the blotched woodwax or pink waxcap, is an agaric fungus native to Scandinavia, Japan, Central Europe, Great Britain and North America.

<i>Hygrophorus pudorinus</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus pudorinus, commonly known as the blushing waxycap, turpentine waxycap, or spruce waxy cap, is a species of fungus in the genus Hygrophorus.

<i>Hygrocybe appalachianensis</i> Species of fungus

Hygrocybe appalachianensis, commonly known as the Appalachian waxy cap, is a gilled fungus of the waxcap family. It is found in the eastern United States, where it fruits singly, in groups, or clusters on the ground in deciduous and mixed forests. The species, described in 1963 from collections made in the Appalachian Mountains, was originally classified in the related genus Hygrophorus. It was transferred to Hygrocybe in 1998, in which it has been proposed as the type species of section Pseudofirmae.

References

  1. 1 2 "Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus (Fr.) Fr. 1838". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved February 19, 2011.
  2. Arora, David (1986). Mushrooms demystified: a comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi (Second ed.). Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN   978-0-89815-169-5.
  3. Fries, Elias Magnus (1815). Observationes Mycologicae (in Latin). Copenhagen, Denmark: Gerh. Bonnier. p. 5.
  4. Batsch, August Johann Georg Karl (1783). Elenchus fungorum (in Latin and German). Halle an der Saale, Germany: sumptibus E. Mauritii. p. 67.
  5. Schaeffer, Jacob Christian (1774). Fungorum qui in Bavaria et Palatinatu circa Ratisbonam nascuntur Icones (in Latin). Vol. 4. Regensburg, Germany: Typis Zunkelianis. p. 16, t.32.
  6. "Agaricus adustus Batsch 1783". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved May 31, 2012.
  7. Fries, Elias Magnus (1838). Epicris Systematis Mycologici (in Latin). Uppsala, Sweden: E Typographia Academica. p. 324.
  8. Kummer, Paul (1871). Der Führer in die Pilzkunde (in German). Zerbst, Germany: C. Luppe. p. 119.
  9. Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. p. 383. ISBN   9780851998268.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Hesler, Lexemuel Ray; Smith, Alexander H. (1963). North American species of Hygrophorus. Knoxville, USA: University of Tennessee Press. pp. 291–295.
  11. Quélet, Lucien (1880). "Quelques especes critiques ou nouvelles de la Flore Mycologique de France". Compte Rendu de l'Association Française Pour l'Avancement des Sciences (in French). 9: 661–675 (see p. 667).
  12. 1 2 Rea, Carleton (1922). British Basidiomycetae: A Handbook to the Larger British Fungi. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 296.
  13. "Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus var. obesus (Bres.) Rea 1922". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved May 31, 2012.
  14. Maire, René. Fungi Catalaunici: Contributions à l'étude de la Flore Mycologique de la Catalogne (PDF). Barcelona, Spain: Museu de Ciencies Naturals. p. 53.
  15. 1 2 Lübken, Tilo; Schmidt, J; Porzel, A; Arnold, N; Wessjohann, L. (2004). "Hygrophorones A–G: fungicidal cyclopentenones from Hygrophorus species (Basidiomycetes)". Phytochemistry . 65 (8): 1061–1071. Bibcode:2004PChem..65.1061L. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2004.01.023. PMID   15110686.
  16. Lübken, Tilo (2006). "Hygrophorone. Neue antifungische Cyclopentenonderivate aus Hygrophorus-Arten (Basidiomycetes)" (PDF) (in German). Halle (Saale), Germany. pp. 27–28.
  17. Laursen, Gary A.; Seppelt, R.D. (2009). Common Interior Alaska Cryptogams: Fungi, Lichenicolous Fungi, Lichenized Fungi, Slime Molds, Mosses, and Liverworts. Alaska, USA: University of Alaska Press. ISBN   978-1-60223-058-3.
  18. 1 2 3 4 Schalkwijk-Barendsen, Helene M.E. (1991). Mushrooms of Western Canada. Edmonton, Canada: Lone Pine Publishing. p.  232. ISBN   978-0-919433-47-2.
  19. Michell, Kate (2006). Field Guide to Mushrooms and Other Fungi of Britain and Europe. London, UK: New Holland Publishers. p. 96. ISBN   978-1-84537-474-7.
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 Arora, David (1986). Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi . Berkeley, USA: Ten Speed Press. pp.  127–128. ISBN   978-0-89815-169-5.
  21. 1 2 3 McKnight, Vera B.; Peterson, Roger Tory (1998). A Field Guide to Mushrooms: North America. Boston, USA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 208. ISBN   978-0-395-91090-0.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kuo, Michael (January 2007). "Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus". Mushroomexpert.com. Retrieved May 29, 2012.
  23. Haug, Ingeborg (2002). "Identification of Picea-ectomycorrhizae by comparing DNA-sequences". Mycological Progress. 1 (2): 167–178. doi:10.1007/s11557-006-0016-9. S2CID   35684210.
  24. Norris, J.R.; Read, D.J.; Varma, A.K. (1991). Techniques for the study of mycorrhiza. Vol. 23. London, UK: Academic Press. pp. 49 et seq. ISBN   978-0-12-521523-7.
  25. Agerer, Reinhard (2011). "Asexual reproduction of Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus by intracellular microsclerotia in root cells of Picea abies – a winner of ozone stress?". Mycological Progress. 11 (2): 425–434. doi:10.1007/s11557-011-0757-y. S2CID   689597.
  26. Laux, Hans E. (1985). Eßbare Pilze und ihre giftigen Doppelgänger (in German). Stuttgart, Germany: Franckh'sche Verlagshandlung, W. Keller. p. 44.
  27. Lübken, Tilo (2006). "Hygrophorone. Neue antifungische Cyclopentenonderivate aus Hygrophorus-Arten (Basidiomycetes)" (PDF) (in German). Halle (Saale), Germany. pp. 118–119.
  28. Bessette, A.; Miller, O.K. Jr.; Bessette, A.R.; Miller, H.R. (1995). Mushrooms of North America in Color: A Field Guide Companion to Seldom-Illustrated Fungi. Syracuse, USA: Syracuse University Press. p. 48. ISBN   978-0-8156-2666-4.
  29. 1 2 Jahn, Hermann (1964–1965). "Verbreitung und Standorte der Schnecklinge, Hygrophorus, in Westfalen" (PDF). Westfälische Pilzbriefe (in German). 5: 57–67.
  30. Koune, Jean-Paul (2001). Threatened mushrooms in Europe (18th ed.). Council of Europe. p. 52. ISBN   978-92-871-4666-3.
  31. Testi, Antonio (1999). Il Libro dei Funghi d'Italia (in Italian). Giunti Editore. p. 248. ISBN   978-88-440-1405-6.
  32. Houdou, Gérard (2005). Champignons de nos Régions (in French). Romagnat, France: Editions de Borée. p. 115. ISBN   978-2-84494-318-7.
  33. de Román M.; Boa, E. (2004). "Collection, marketing and cultivation of edible fungi in Spain" (PDF). Mycología Aplicada International. 16 (2): 25–33.
  34. Lübken, Tilo (2006). "Hygrophorone. Neue antifungische Cyclopentenonderivate aus Hygrophorus-Arten (Basidiomycetes)" (PDF) (in German). Halle (Saale), Germany: 5.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  35. Zhou, Jiaju; Xie, Guirong; Yan, Xinjian (2011). Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Medicines – Molecular Structures, Pharmacological Activities, Natural Sources and Applications. 1. Isolated Compounds A–C. Berlin, Germany: Springer. p. 51. ISBN   978-3-642-16734-8.
  36. Zhou, Jiaju; Xie, Guirong; Yan, Xinjian (2011). Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Medicines – Molecular Structures, Pharmacological Activities, Natural Sources and Applications. 5. Isolated Compounds T–Z. Berlin, Germany: Springer. p. 149. ISBN   978-3-642-16741-6.