It ranges from Ontario west to Alaska, and south to Missouri, north-central Nebraska, the northern half of Wyoming, and central Washington south through Idaho into north-central Utah. A disjunct subset of its range occurs from central Colorado to northwestern New Mexico.[3] An isolated population was formerly found in Chihuahua, Mexico, but has since been extirpated.[4] The United States portion of the Souris River is alternately known as the Mouse River because of the large numbers of field mice that lived along its banks.
Plant communities
In eastern Washington and northern Idaho, meadow voles are found in relative abundance in sedge (Carex sp.) fens, but not in adjacent cedar (Thuja sp.)-hemlock (Tsuga sp.), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), or ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests. Meadow voles are also absent from fescue (Festuca sp.)-snowberry (Symphoricarpos sp.) associations. Moisture may be a major factor in habitat use; possibly the presence of free water is a deciding factor.[5][6]
In southeastern Montana, western meadow voles were the second-most abundant small mammal (after deer mice, Peromyscus maniculatus) in riparian areas within big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata)-buffalo grass (Bouteloua dactyloides) habitats.[5] Western meadow voles are listed as riparian-dependent vertebrates in the Snake River drainage of Wyoming. In a compilation of 11 studies[6] on small mammals, western meadow voles were reported in only three of 29 sites in subalpine forests of the central Rocky Mountains. Their range extensions were likely to be related to irrigation practices.[7] They are now common in hayfields, pastures, and along ditches in the Rocky Mountain states.[8] In Pipestone National Monument, Minnesota, western meadow voles were present in riparian shrublands, tallgrass prairie, and other habitats.[9]
In an Iowa prairie restoration project, meadow voles experienced an initial population increase during the initial stage of vegetation succession (old field dominated by foxtail grass (Setaria spp.), red clover (Trifolium pratense), annual ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), and thistles (Cirsium spp.). However, populations reached their peak abundance during the perennial grass stage of succession from old field to tallgrass prairie.[10] Meadow vole habitat devoid of tree cover and grasses dominated the herb layer.[11] with low tolerance for habitat variation (i. e., a species that is intolerant of variations in habitat, is restricted to few habitats, and/or uses habitats less evenly than tolerant species).[11]
In most areas, meadow voles clearly prefer habitat with dense vegetation. In tallgrass prairie at Pipestone National Monument, they were positively associated with dense vegetation and litter.[12] The variables important to meadow vole habitat in Virginia include vegetative cover reaching a height of 8 to 16 inches (20–41cm) and presence of litter.[13] Meadow voles appeared to be randomly distributed within a grassland habitat in southern Quebec.[14] Grant and Morris[14] were not able to establish any association of meadow vole abundance with particular plant species. They were also unable to distinguish between food and cover as the determining factor in meadow vole association with dense vegetation. In South Dakota, meadow voles prefer grasslands to Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum) woodlands.[15] In New Mexico, meadow voles were captured in stands of grasses, wild rose (Rosa sp.), prickly pear (Opuntia sp.), and various forbs; meadow voles were also captured in wet areas with tall marsh grasses.[16]
Open habitat with a thick mat of perennial grass favors voles.[17] In west-central Illinois, they were the most common small mammals on Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans)-dominated and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum)-dominated study plots. They were present in very low numbers on orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata)-dominated plots. The most stable population occurred on unburned big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii)-dominated plots.[18] In Ontario, meadow voles and white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) occur together in ecotones. Meadow voles were the most common small mammals in oak savanna/tallgrass prairie dominated by northern pin oak (Quercus ellipsoidalis) and grasses including bluejoint reedgrass (Calamagrostis canadensis), prairie cordgrass (Sporobolus michauxianus), big bluestem, switchgrass, and Indian grass.
In Michigan, strip clearcuts in a conifer swamp resulted in an increase in the relative abundance of meadow voles. They were most abundant in clearcut strip interiors and least abundant in uncut strip interiors. Slash burning did not appear to affect meadow vole numbers about 1.5 years after treatment.[19]
In northern prairie wetlands, meadow voles are a large portion of the diets of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), American mink (Neogale vison), short-eared owls (Asio flammeus), and northern harriers (Circus cyaneus).[22] Voles are frequently taken by racers (Coluber sp.) since both often use the same burrows.[23]
Management
In forest plantations in British Columbia, an apparently abundant (not measured) meadow vole population was associated with a high rate of "not sufficient regeneration"; damage to tree seedlings was attributed to meadow voles and lemmings (Synaptomys sp.).[24]
The cycle of meadow vole abundance is an important proximate factor affecting the life histories of its major predators. Meadow voles are usually the most abundant small mammals in northern prairie wetlands, often exceeding 40% of all individual small mammals present.[25] Numbers of short-eared owls, northern harriers, rough-legged hawks (Buteo lagopus), coyotes (Canis latrans), and red foxes were directly related to large numbers of meadow voles in a field in Wisconsin.[26] Predator numbers are positively associated with meadow vole abundance.[27][28]
Threats
The species depends heavily on mesic habitats, and in areas on the periphery of its range, which contain distinctive and divergent subspecies, populations may be lost if the wetness of the habitats changes.[2] A distinct Pleistocenerelict subspecies, M. d. chihuahuensis, the Chihuahuan vole, was also found in Chihuahua, Mexico, but has not been recorded since 1988 after its habitat was degraded by recreational activities and especially overgrazing, and eventually the marsh was completely drained by the early 2000s. This subspecies displayed notable divergence from other populations and was highly isolated from any others, and would be considered a distinctive subspecies.[4] In addition, two other populations in New Mexico appear to have been extirpated in recent times, likely as a consequence of climate change-induced drying and overgrazing. Due to the heavy association between meadow voles and mesic habitats, they are especially at risk from drying trends in areas at the peripheries of their range, leaving many of these populations at heavy risk of extirpation.[2]
Related Research Articles
Voles are small rodents that are relatives of lemmings and hamsters, but with a stouter body; a longer, hairy tail; a slightly rounder head; smaller eyes and ears; and differently formed molars. They are sometimes known as meadow mice or field mice in North America.
The American badger is a North American badger similar in appearance to the European badger, although not closely related. It is found in the western, central, and northeastern United States, northern Mexico, and south-central Canada to certain areas of southwestern British Columbia.
The eastern meadow vole, sometimes called the field mouse or meadow mouse, is a North American vole found in eastern Canada and the United States. Its range extends farther south along the Atlantic coast.
Microtus is a genus of voles found in North America, Europe and northern Asia. The genus name refers to the small ears of these animals. They are stout rodents with short ears, legs and tails. They eat green vegetation such as grasses and sedges in summer, and grains, seeds, root and bark at other times. The genus is also called "meadow voles".
The Florida salt marsh vole is a North American vole endemic to the state of Florida in the United States.
The North American water vole or just water vole is the largest North American vole. It is found in the northwestern United States and southern parts of western Canada. This animal has been historically considered a member of genus Arvicola, but molecular evidence demonstrates that it is more closely related to North American Microtus species. Water voles are on the USDA Forest Service Region 2 sensitive species list because they maintain very small populations and there is high concern that their required habitat may be declining.
The southern bog lemming is a small North American lemming. Its range overlaps with the other species in genus Synaptomys, the northern bog lemming, in southeastern Canada, but extends farther south.
The northern red-backed vole is a small slender vole found in Alaska, northern Canada, Scandinavia and northern Russia.
The long-tailed vole, in some areas known as the San Bernardino long-tailed vole, is a small vole found in western North America. They have short ears and a long tail. Their fur is gray brown with light gray underparts. They are around 18 cm (7.1 in) long with an 8 cm (3.1 in) tail and weigh about 50 g (1.8 oz).
The prairie vole is a small vole found in central North America.
The short-tailed field vole, short-tailed vole, or simply field vole is a grey-brown vole, around 10 cm in length, with a short tail. It is one of the most common mammals in Europe, with a range extending from the Atlantic coast to Lake Baikal. These voles are found in moist grassy habitats, such as woodland, marsh or on river banks. Although they make shallow burrows, they usually build nests above ground. They are an important food source for owls and some other predators and their population size tends to peak and trough cyclically. Field voles breed prolifically, mainly in summer, but often all year round, even under snow. Females produce up to seven litters a year, each averaging from four to six young which are weaned after about fourteen days. The short-tailed field vole is both widespread and common and is listed as being of "Least Concern" by the IUCN.
The gray-tailed vole also known as the gray-tailed meadow vole or gray-tailed meadow mouse, is a rodent in the genus Microtus of the family Cricetidae. Voles are small mammals, and this species lies roughly in the middle of their size range. First collected in 1895, it is endemic to the Willamette Valley, Oregon, and Clark County, Washington, in the Pacific Northwest region of North America. Historically, they were found in the prairie areas of the Valley and, though many of these areas have been converted for agricultural purposes, these animals remain common. For reasons that remain unclear, vole population densities in any area may fluctuate widely from season to season and year to year. They are preyed upon by owls, hawks, and carnivorous mammals, and their parasites include fleas and ticks. These voles build burrows and complex tunnel networks, which they sometimes share with other burrowing animals. Relatively little is known about their behavior in the wild, because they are elusive and unlikely to enter traps.
The hispid cotton rat is a rat long thought to occur in parts of South America, Central America, and southern North America. However, recent taxonomic revisions, based on mitochondrial DNA sequence data, have split this widely distributed species into three separate species. The distribution of S. hispidus ranges from Arizona in the west to Virginia to the east and from the Platte River in Nebraska in the north to, likely, the Rio Grande in the south, where it meets the northern edge of the distribution of S. toltecus. Adult size is total length 202–340 mm (8.0–13.4 in); tail 87–122 mm (3.4–4.8 in), frequently broken or stubbed; hind foot 29–35 mm (1.1–1.4 in); ear 16–20 mm (0.63–0.79 in); mass 50–250 g (1.8–8.8 oz). They have been used as laboratory animals.
The beach vole or Muskeget vole is a rodent in the family Cricetidae. This close relative of the eastern meadow vole is endemic to the 0.87 km2 Muskeget Island, Massachusetts. Due to its relatively short period of reproductive isolation, there is debate over the beach vole's designation as a subspecies of M. pennsylvanicus.
The montane vole is a species of vole native to the western United States and Canada.
Thirty-seven species of mammals have been identified at Indiana Dunes National Park. Four other species are thought to inhabit the park, but have not been documented: the northern long-eared myotis, the Indiana bat, the hoary bat, and the southern bog lemming
There are at least 50 small mammal species known to occur in Yellowstone National Park.
Listrophorus is a genus of parasitic mites in the family Listrophoridae. North American species with their hosts include:
↑ Snyder, Ellen J.; Best, Louis B. (1988). "Dynamics of Habitat use by Small Mammals in Prairie Communities". American Midland Naturalist. 119 (1): 128–36. doi:10.2307/2426061. JSTOR2426061.
↑ Schwartz, Orlando A; Whitson, Paul D. (1987). "A 12-year Study of Vegetation and Mammal Succession on a Reconstructed Tallgrass Prairie in Iowa". American Midland Naturalist. 117 (2): 240–9. doi:10.2307/2425965. JSTOR2425965.
1 2 Geier, Anthony R.; Best, Louis B. (1980). "Habitat Selection by Small Mammals of Riparian Communities: Evaluating Effects of Habitat Alterations". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 44 (1): 16–24. doi:10.2307/3808346. JSTOR3808346.
↑ Snyder, Ellen J.; Best, Louis B. (1988). "Dynamics of Habitat use by Small Mammals in Prairie Communities". American Midland Naturalist. 119 (1): 128–36. doi:10.2307/2426061. JSTOR2426061.
↑ Conley, Walt; Tipton, Alan R.; Kukila, Susan (1976). "Habitat preference in Microtus pennsylvanicus: a preliminary multivariate analysis". Virginia Journal of Science. 27 (2): 43.
1 2 Grant, P. R.; Morris, Ralph D. (1971). "The distribution ofMicrotus pennsylvanicuswithin grassland habitat". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 49 (7): 1043–52. doi:10.1139/z71-160.
↑ Sieg, Carolyn Hull. (1988). "The value of Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum) woodlands in South Dakota as small mammal habitat". In: Szaro, Robert C.; Severson, Kieth E.; Patton, David R., technical coordinators. Management of amphibians, reptiles, and small mammals in North America: Proceedings of the symposium; 1988 July 19–21; Flagstaff, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-166. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 328-332.
↑ Finley, Robert B.; Choate, Jerry R.; Hoffmeister, Donald F. (1986). "Distributions and Habitats of Voles in Southeastern Colorado and Northeastern New Mexico". The Southwestern Naturalist. 31 (2): 263–6. doi:10.2307/3670577. JSTOR3670577.
↑ M'Closkey, Robert T.; Hecnar, Stephen J. (1994). "Small mammals of the Ojibway Prairie Provincial Nature Reserve, Windsor, Ontario". In: Wickett, Robert G.; Lewis, Patricia Dolan; Woodliffe, Allen; Pratt, Paul, eds. Spirit of the land, our prairie legacy: Proceedings, 13th North American prairie conference; 1992 August 6–9; Windsor, ON. Windsor, ON: Department of Parks and Recreation: 75-80.
↑ Moreth, Louis H.; Schramm, Peter. (1973). "A comparative survey of small mammal populations in various grassland habitats with emphasis on restored prairie". In: Hulbert, Lloyd C., ed. Third Midwest prairie conference pr; 1972 September 22–23; Manhattan, KS. Manhattan, KS: Kansas State University, Division of Biology: 79-84.
↑ Johnson, Murray L.; Johnson, Sherry (1982). "Voles: Microtus species". In Chapman, Joseph A.; Feldhamer, George A. (eds.). Wild mammals of North America: Biology, management, and economics. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp.326–54.
↑ Johnson, Murray L.; Johnson, Sherry (1982). "Voles: Microtus species". In Chapman, Joseph A.; Feldhamer, George A. (eds.). Wild mammals of North America: Biology, management, and economics. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp.326–54.
↑ Fritzell, Erik K. (1989). "Mammals in prairie wetlands". In Vander Valk; Arnold (eds.). Northern prairie wetlands. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. pp.268–301.
↑ Madison, Dale M. (1978). "Behavioral and Sociochemical Susceptibility of Meadow Voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus) to Snake Predators". American Midland Naturalist. 100 (1): 23–8. doi:10.2307/2424774. JSTOR2424774.
↑ Sullivan, Thomas P.; Martin, Wayne L. (1991). "Influence of site factors on incidence of vole and lemming feeding damage to forest plantations". Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 6 (3): 64–7. doi:10.1093/wjaf/6.3.64.
↑ Fritzell, Erik K. (1989). "Mammals in prairie wetlands". In Vander Valk; Arnold (eds.). Northern prairie wetlands. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. pp.268–301.
↑ Johnson, Murray L.; Johnson, Sherry (1982). "Voles: Microtus species". In Chapman, Joseph A.; Feldhamer, George A. (eds.). Wild mammals of North America: Biology, management, and economics. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp.326–54.
↑ Walley, W.J. (1972). "Summer observations of the short-eared owl in the Red River Valley". Prairie Naturalist. 4 (2): 39–41.
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