Garter snake

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Garter snake
Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis Wooster.jpg
The eastern garter snake
(Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis)
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Colubridae
Subfamily: Natricinae
Genus: Thamnophis
Fitzinger, 1843
Species

35, see text

Thamnophis range.png
Thamnophis distribution
Synonyms [1]

Atomarchus, Chilopoma, Eutaenia, Eutainia, Phamnovis, Prymnomiodon, Stypocemus, Tropidonote, Tropidonotus

Contents

Garter snake is the common name for small to medium-sized snakes belonging to the genus Thamnophis in the family Colubridae. They are native to North and Central America, ranging from central Canada in the north to Costa Rica in the south.

With about 35 recognized species and subspecies, garter snakes are highly variable in appearance; generally, they have large round eyes with rounded pupils, a slender build, keeled scales (appearing ‘raised’), and a pattern of longitudinal stripes that may or may not include spots (although some have no stripes at all). Certain subspecies have stripes of blue, yellow, or red, mixed with black tops and beige-tan underbelly markings. They also vary significantly in total length, from 18 to 51 in (46 to 130 cm).

With no real consensus on the classification of the species of Thamnophis, disagreements between taxonomists and disputed sources (such as field guides) are common. One area of debate, for example, is whether or not two specific types of snake are separate species, or subspecies of the same. Garter snakes are closely related to the genus Nerodia (water snakes), with some species having been moved back and forth between genera.

Taxonomy

The first garter snake to be scientifically described was the eastern garter snake (now Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis), by zoologist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The genus Thamnophis was described by Leopold Fitzinger in 1843 as the genus for the garter snakes and ribbon snakes. [2] Many snakes previously identified as their own genera or species have been reclassified as species or subspecies in Thamnophis. The Reptile Database currently recognised 37 species in the genus, some with several subspecies. [3]

Distribution and habitat

Native to North and Central America, species in the genus Thamnophis can be found in all of the lower 48 United States, and all of the Canadian provinces. They are found from the subarctic plains of west-central Canada east through Ontario and Quebec; from Atlantic Canada and south to Florida, across the southern and central U.S. into the arid regions of the southwest and Mexico, Guatemala and south to the neotropics and Costa Rica.

Garter snakes are not originally native to the eastern Canadian island of Newfoundland, but have been breeding there in the wild and gradually spreading since at least 2010. It is unknown how they reached the island, probably accidentally via hay shipments or as escaped pets. [4] [5]

Their wide distribution is due to their varied diets and adaptability to different habitats, with varying proximity to water. However, in the western part of North America these snakes are more aquatic than in the eastern portion. Garter snakes live in a variety of habitats, including forests, woodlands, fields, grasslands and lawns, but never far from water, often an adjacent wetland, stream or pond. This reflects the fact that amphibians are a large part of their diet. Garter snakes are often found near small ponds with tall weeds.

Behavior

The posterior tooth of a garter snake Garter snake tooth.jpg
The posterior tooth of a garter snake

Garter snakes have complex pheromonal communication systems. They can find other snakes by following their pheromone-scented trails. Male and female skin pheromones are so different as to be immediately distinguishable. However, male garter snakes sometimes produce both male and female pheromones. During the mating season, this ability fools other males into attempting to mate with them. This causes the transfer of heat to them in kleptothermy, which is an advantage immediately after hibernation, allowing them to become more active. [6] Male snakes giving off both male and female pheromones have been shown to garner more copulations than normal males in the mating balls that form at the den when females enter the mating melee. A snake hatch can include as many as 57 young. [7]

Garter snakes use the vomeronasal organ to communicate via pheromones through tongue flicking, which gathers chemical cues in the environment. Upon entering the lumen of the organ, the chemical molecules will come into contact with the sensory cells, which are attached to the neurosensory epithelium of the vomeronasal organ.[ citation needed ]

If disturbed, a garter snake may coil and strike, but it typically hides its head and flails its tail. These snakes will also discharge a malodorous, musky-scented secretion from a gland near the cloaca. This secretion from North American garter snakes contains seven highly odoriferous volatile components: acetic, propanoic, 2-methylpropanoic, butanoic, and 3-methylbutanoic acids; and trimethylamine, and 2-piperidone. [8] They often use these techniques to escape when ensnared by a predator. They will also slither into the water to escape a predator on land. Hawks, crows, egrets, herons, cranes, raccoons, otters and other snake species (such as coral snakes and kingsnakes) will eat garter snakes, with even shrews and frogs eating the juveniles.

Close up of the scales on the back of the common garter snake Garter Snake Scales.tif
Close up of the scales on the back of the common garter snake

Being heterothermic, like all reptiles, garter snakes bask in the sun to regulate their body temperature. During brumation (the reptile equivalent of hibernation), garter snakes typically occupy large communal sites called hibernacula. These snakes will migrate large distances to brumate.

Social behavior

A long-term study by the Ontario Ministry of Transportation has shed light on the social behavior of Butler's garter snakes. The study, conducted in a 250-hectare area near Windsor, Canada, tracked over 3,000 individual snakes over a 12-year period. The findings challenge previous assumptions about solitary snake behavior and suggest that these snakes form social groups and communities. The study revealed that Butler's garter snakes do not wander randomly but instead tend to associate with specific groups of snakes. These groups typically consist of three to four individuals, with some larger groups reaching up to 46 snakes. [9] [10]

Diet

Eating a frog Garter swallowing frog.jpg
Eating a frog

Garter snakes, like all snakes, are carnivorous. Their diet consists of almost any creature they are capable of overpowering: slugs, earthworms (nightcrawlers, as redworms are toxic to garter snakes), leeches, lizards, amphibians (including frog eggs), minnows, and rodents. When living near water, they eat other aquatic animals. The ribbon snake (Thamnophis saurita) in particular favors frogs (including tadpoles), readily eating them despite their strong chemical defenses. Food is swallowed whole. Garter snakes often adapt to eating whatever they can find and whenever they can find it because food can be either scarce or abundant. Although they feed mostly on live animals they will sometimes eat eggs. [11]

Venom

Garter snakes were long thought to be non-venomous, but discoveries in the early 2000s revealed that they produce a neurotoxic venom. [12] Despite this, garter snakes cannot seriously injure or kill humans with the small amounts of comparatively mild venom they produce and they also lack an effective means of delivering it. In a few cases, some swelling and bruising has been reported. [13] They do have enlarged teeth in the back of their mouth [14] but their gums are significantly larger and the secretions of their Duvernoy's gland are only mildly toxic. [13] [15]

Evidence suggests that garter snake and newt populations share an evolutionary link in their tetrodotoxin resistance levels, implying co-evolution between predator and prey. [16] Garter snakes feeding on toxic newts can also retain those toxins in their liver for weeks, making those snakes poisonous as well as venomous. [17]

Conservation status

A mating ball Mating ball of garter snakes.jpg
A mating ball
A young garter snake Gartersnake2128.JPG
A young garter snake

Despite the decline in their population from collection as pets (especially in the more northerly regions, in which large groups are collected at hibernation), [18] pollution of aquatic areas, and the introduction of American bullfrogs as potential predators, garter snakes are still some of the most commonly found reptiles in much of their ranges. The San Francisco garter snake ( Thamnophis sirtalis tetrataenia ), however, has been on the endangered list since 1969. Predation by crayfish has also been responsible for the decline of the narrow-headed garter snake (Thamnophis rufipunctatus). [19] Many breeders have bred all species of garter snakes, making it a popular breed.

Species and subspecies

Arranged alphabetically by scientific name:

ImageNameSubspeciesDistribution
Thamnophis atratus (1).jpg Aquatic garter snake, Thamnophis atratus (Kennicott, 1860) coast of Oregon and California.
Bogert's garter snake, Thamnophis bogerti Rossman & Burbrink, 2005 Oaxaca, Mexico
Shorthead garter snake, Thamnophis brachystoma (Cope, 1892)northwestern Pennsylvania and southwestern New York.
Thamnophis butleri.jpg Butler's garter snake, Thamnophis butleri (Cope, 1889) northwestern Ohio, northeastern Indiana, the eastern portion of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, and the adjacent extreme southern tip of Ontario, Canada.
Goldenhead garter snake, Thamnophis chrysocephalus (Cope, 1885)Mexico.
Conant's garter snake, Thamnophis conanti Rossman & Burbrink, 2005 Puebla and Veracruz, Mexico.
Cope's mountain meadow snake, Thamnophis copei Dugès, 1879Mexico.
Sierra garter snake handled.jpg Sierra garter snake, Thamnophis couchii (Kennicott, 1859) California and Oregon in the United States
Thamnophis cyrtopsis ocellatus.jpg Blackneck garter snake, Thamnophis cyrtopsis (Kennicott, 1860)
  • Western blackneck garter snake, T. c. cyrtopsis (Kennicott, 1860)
  • Eastern blackneck garter snake, T. c. ocellatus (Cope, 1880)
  • Tropical blackneck garter snake, T. c. collaris (Jan, 1863)
southwestern United States, Mexico and Guatemala
Coast Garter Snake.jpg Western terrestrial garter snake, Thamnophis elegans (Baird & Girard, 1853)
  • Arizona garter snake, T. e. arizonae W. Tanner & Lowe, 1989
  • Mountain garter snake, T. e. elegans (Baird & Girard, 1853)
  • San Pedro Mártir garter snake, T. e. hueyi Van Denburgh & Slevin, 1923
  • Coastal garter snake, T. e. terrestris Fox, 1951
  • Wandering garter snake, T. e. vagrans (Baird & Girard, 1853)
  • Upper Basin garter snake, T. e. vascotanneri W. Tanner & Lowe, 1989
central British Columbia, central Alberta, and southwestern Manitoba in Canada, Central United States
Thamnophis eques1.jpg Mexican garter snake, Thamnophis eques (Reuss, 1834)
  • Mexican garter snake, T. e. eques (Reuss, 1834)
  • Laguna Totolcingo garter snake, T. e. carmenensis Conant, 2003
  • T. e. cuitzeoensis Conant, 2003
  • T. e. diluvialis Conant, 2003
  • T. e. insperatus Conant, 2003
  • Northern Mexican garter snake, T. e. megalops (Kennicott, 1860)
  • T. e. obscurus Conant, 2003
  • T. e. patzcuaroensis Conant, 2003
  • T. e. scotti Conant, 2003
  • T. e. virgatenuis Conant, 1963
Mexico and in the United States (Arizona and New Mexico).
Thamnophis errans.jpg Mexican wandering garter snake, Thamnophis errans H. M. Smith, 1942Chihuahua, Durango, Jalisco, Nayarit, and Zacatecas States of Mexico.
Montane garter snake, Thamnophis exsul Rossman, 1969 Mexico.
Fox's mountain meadow snake, Thamnophis foxi Rossman & Blaney, 1968Mexico.
Highland garter snake, Thamnophis fulvus (Bocourt, 1893)Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador.
Giant Garter Snake 1.jpg Giant garter snake, Thamnophis gigas Fitch, 1940central California.
Godman's garter snake, [20] Thamnophis godmani (Günther, 1894) southern Mexico
Thamnophis hammondii 02.jpg Two-striped garter snake, Thamnophis hammondii (Kennicott, 1860) central California to Baja California, Mexico
Liner's garter snake, Thamnophis lineri [21] Rossman & Burbrink, 2005 Mexico.
Thamnophis marcianus.jpg Checkered garter snake, Thamnophis marcianus (Baird & Girard, 1853)
  • T. m. marcianus (Baird & Girard, 1853)
  • T. m. praeocularis (Bocourt, 1892)
  • T. m. bovalli (Dunn, 1940)
southwestern United States, Mexico, and Central America.
Blackbelly Garter Snake imported from iNaturalist photo 162669277 on 15 November 2021.jpg Blackbelly garter snake, Thamnophis melanogaster (Peters, 1864)Mexico.
Tamaulipan montane garter snake, Thamnophis mendax Walker, 1955 Mexico.
Southern Durango spotted garter snake, Thamnophis nigronuchalis Thompson, 1957Durango, Mexico.
Thamnophis ordinoides 071616 A.jpg Northwestern garter snake, Thamnophis ordinoides (Baird & Girard, 1852)California, Oregon, and Washington; in Canada, it is found in British Columbia
Tepalcatepec Valley garter snake, Thamnophis postremus Smith, 1942Mexico.
Thamnophis proximus rubrilineatus.jpg Western ribbon snake, Thamnophis proximus (Say, 1823)
  • Chiapas Highlands ribbon snake, T. p. alpinus Rossman, 1963
  • Arid land ribbon snake, T. p. diabolicus Rossman, 1963
  • Gulf Coast ribbon snake, T. p. orarius Rossman, 1963
  • Orangestripe ribbon snake or western ribbon snake T. p. proximus (Say, 1823)
  • Redstripe ribbon snake, T. p. rubrilineatus Rossman, 1963
  • Mexican ribbon snake, T. p. rutiloris (Cope, 1885)
western United States, Mexico, and Central America
Thamnophis pulchrilatus4.jpg Yellow-throated garter snake, Thamnophis pulchrilatus (Cope, 1885) Mexico.
Thamnophis-radix.JPG Plains garter snake, Thamnophis radix (Baird & Girard, 1853) central United States as far north as Canada and as far south as Texas.
Rossman's garter snake, Thamnophis rossmani Conant, 2000 Mexico.
Narrow-headed garter snake, Thamnophis rufipunctatus (Cope, 1875) Arizona and New Mexico, and in the Mexican states of Sonora, Chihuahua and Durango
EasternRibbonSnake.jpg Ribbon snake, Thamnophis saurita (Linnaeus, 1766) Eastern North America
Thamnophis scalaris.jpg Longtail alpine garter snake, Thamnophis scalaris (Cope, 1861) Mexico.
Short-tail alpine garter snake, Thamnophis scaliger (Jan, 1863) Mexico.
Thamnophis sirtalis annectens.jpg Common garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis (Linnaeus, 1758) North America
Sumichrast's garter snake, Thamnophis sumichrasti (Cope, 1866)Mexico.
Madrean narrow-headed garter snake, Thamnophis unilabialis W. Tanner, 1985Mexico.
West Coast garter snake, Thamnophis validus (Kennicott, 1860) Mexico.

In the above list, a binomial authority or a trinomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species or subspecies was originally described in a genus other than Thamnophis.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common garter snake</span> Species of snake

The common garter snake is a species of snake in the subfamily Natricinae of the family Colubridae. The species is indigenous to North America and found widely across the continent. There are several recognized subspecies. Most common garter snakes have a pattern of yellow stripes on a black, brown or green background, and their average total length is about 55 cm (22 in), with a maximum total length of about 137 cm (54 in). The average body mass is 150 g (5.3 oz). The common garter snake is the state reptile of Massachusetts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Queen snake</span> Species of snakes

The queen snake is a species of nonvenomous semiaquatic snake, a member of the subfamily Natricinae of the family Colubridae. The species is endemic to North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rough-skinned newt</span> Species of amphibian known for strong toxicity

The rough-skinned newt or roughskin newt is a North American newt known for the strong toxin exuded from its skin.

<i>Thamnophis saurita</i> Species of snake

Thamnophis saurita, also known as the eastern ribbon snake, common ribbon snake, or simply ribbon snake, is a common species of garter snake native to Eastern North America. It is a non-venomous species of snake in the subfamily Natricinae of the family Colubridae. The ribbon snake averages 16 to 35 inches in total length. It is dark brown with bright yellow stripes. The ribbon snake is not sexually dimorphic; however, females are normally thicker than their male counterparts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">San Francisco garter snake</span> Subspecies of snake

The San Francisco garter snake is a slender multi-colored subspecies of the common garter snake. Designated as an endangered subspecies since the year 1967, it is endemic to San Mateo County and the extreme northern part of coastal Santa Cruz County in California.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Texas garter snake</span> Subspecies of snake

The Texas garter snake is a subspecies of the common garter snake. The subspecies, which belongs to the subfamily Natricinae of the family Colubridae, is native to the western United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern garter snake</span> Subspecies of snake

The eastern garter snake is a medium-sized snake indigenous to North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Checkered garter snake</span> Species of snake

The checkered garter snake is a species of garter snake in the subfamily Natricinae of the family Colubridae. The species is endemic to the southwestern United States, Mexico, and Central America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plains garter snake</span> Species of snake

The plains garter snake is a species of garter snake native to most of the central United States as far north as Canada and as far south as Texas. It has a distinctive orange or yellow stripe from its head to tail, and the rest of its body is mainly a gray-green color. The snake is commonly found living near water sources such as streams and ponds, but can also be found in urban areas and vacant lots. Although the IUCN lists the species as "Least Concern", some states have given it their own special status. This species is mildly venomous, although the venom is not toxic to humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sierra newt</span> Species of amphibian

The Sierra newt is a newt found west of the Sierra Nevada, from Shasta county to Tulare County, in California, Western North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Butler's garter snake</span> Species of snake

Butler's garter snake is a species of garter snake in the family Colubridae. The species is endemic to North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northwestern garter snake</span> Species of snake

The northwestern garter snake is a species of snake in the family Colubridae. The species is endemic to North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western terrestrial garter snake</span> Species of snake

The western terrestrial garter snake is a western North American species of colubrid snake. At least five subspecies are recognized.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern ribbon snake</span> Subspecies of snake

The southern ribbon snake(Thamnophis saurita sackenii), also known commonly as the peninsula ribbon snake and the Florida ribbon snake, is a subspecies of garter snake in the family Colubridae. It is one of four subspecies of the ribbon snake.

<i>Thamnophis proximus</i> Species of snake

Thamnophis proximus, commonly known as the western ribbon snake or western ribbonsnake, is a species of garter snake in the subfamily Natricinae of the family Colubridae. The species is found in the central and southern United States, Mexico, and Central America south to central Costa Rica. The species has six recognized subspecies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amphibians and reptiles of Mount Rainier National Park</span>

There are 14 species of amphibians and 5 species of reptiles known to occur in Mount Rainier National Park.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shorthead garter snake</span> Species of snake

Thamnophis brachystoma, commonly known as the shorthead garter snake or short-headed gartersnake, is a small species of colubrid snake. The species is endemic to the north-eastern United States.

The Southern Durango spotted garter snake is a species of snake of the family Colubridae. It is endemic to the state of Durango, Mexico.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-sided garter snake</span> Subspecies of snake

The red-sided garter snake is a subspecies of the common garter snake, in the subfamily Natricinae of the family Colubridae. This slender subspecies of natricine snake is indigenous to North America and is one of the recognized subspecies of Thamnophis sirtalis. This subspecies is widely spread across northern United States and southern Canada.

References

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  21. Thamnophis lineri. The Reptile Database. http://www.reptile-database.org.

Further reading