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Plasmodium is a genus of unicellular eukaryotes that are obligate parasites of vertebrates and insects. The life cycles of Plasmodium species involve development in a blood-feeding insect host which then injects parasites into a vertebrate host during a blood meal. Parasites grow within a vertebrate body tissue before entering the bloodstream to infect red blood cells. The ensuing destruction of host red blood cells can result in disease, called malaria. During this infection, some parasites are picked up by a blood-feeding insect, continuing the life cycle.
Plasmodium falciparum is a unicellular protozoan parasite of humans, and the deadliest species of Plasmodium that causes malaria in humans. The parasite is transmitted through the bite of a female Anopheles mosquito and causes the disease's most dangerous form, falciparum malaria. It is responsible for around 50% of all malaria cases. P. falciparum is therefore regarded as the deadliest parasite in humans. It is also associated with the development of blood cancer and is classified as Group 2A carcinogen.
Photorhabdus luminescens is a Gammaproteobacterium of the family Morganellaceae, and is a lethal pathogen of insects.
Cryptophycins are a family of macrolide molecules that are potent cytotoxins and have been studied for potential antiproliferative properties useful in developing chemotherapy. They are members of the depsipeptide family.
Complanine is a quaternary ammonium compound isolated from the marine fireworm Eurythoe complanata. It causes an inflammatory effect upon contact with the skin or mucous membranes.
Xenorhabdus is a genus of motile, gram-negative bacteria from the family of the Morganellaceae. All the species of the genus are only known to live in symbiosis with soil entomopathogenic nematodes from the genus Steinernema.
Benvitimod is a bacterial stilbenoid produced in Photorhabdus bacterial symbionts of Heterorhabditis nematodes. It is a product of an alternative ketosynthase-directed stilbenoids biosynthesis pathway. It is derived from the condensation of two β-ketoacyl thioesters. It is produced by the Photorhabdus luminescens bacterial symbiont species of the entomopathogenic nematode, Heterorhabditis megidis. Experiments with infected larvae of Galleria mellonella, the wax moth, support the hypothesis that the compound has antibiotic properties that help minimize competition from other microorganisms and prevents the putrefaction of the nematode-infected insect cadaver.
The xenortides (A-D) are a class of linear peptides isolated from the bacterium Xenorhabdus nematophila, a symbiont of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae. This class of compounds is known for their insect virulence and cytotoxic biological activities. The tryptamide containing compounds show higher biological activity than the phenylethylamides. The most biologically active compound was found to be xenortide B with a potency of less than 1.6 μM activity against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and Plasmodium falciparum (malaria), however it is also the most toxic to mammalian cells which limits its viability as a treatment.
Xenorhabdus ehlersii is a bacterium from the genus of Xenorhabdus which has been isolated from the nematode Steinernema serratum in China.
Xenorhabdus bovienii is a bacterium from the genus of Xenorhabdus which has been isolated from the nematode Steinernema bibionis, Steinernema krsussei, Steinernema affine, Steinernema carpocapsae, Steinernema feltiae, Steinernema intermedium, Steinernema jollieti and Steinernema weiseri. Xenorhabdus bovienii produces N-Butanoylpyrrothine, N-(3-Methylbutanoyl)pyrrothine and Xenocyloins.
Xenorhabdus budapestensis is a bacterium from the genus of Xenorhabdus which has been isolated from the nematode Steinernema bicornutum in Subotica in Serbia. Xenorhabdus budapestensis produces bicornutin A2.
Xenorhabdus cabanillasii is a bacterium from the genus of Xenorhabdus which has been isolated from the nematode Steinernema riobrave in Texas in the United States. Xenorhabdus cabanillasii produces the antifungal metabolite Cabanillasin.
Xenorhabdus griffiniae is a bacterium from the genus of Xenorhabdus which has been isolated from the nematode Steinernema hermaphroditum in Indonesia.
Xenorhabdus hominickii is a bacterium from the genus of Xenorhabdus which has been isolated from the nematodes Steinernema karii in Kenya and Steinernema monticolum from Korea.
Xenorhabdus indica is a bacterium from the genus of Xenorhabdus which has been isolated from the nematodes Steinernema thermophilum and Steinernema yirgalemense. Xenorhabdus indica produces the Taxlllaids A–G.
Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1) is a family of proteins present on the membrane surface of red blood cells that are infected by the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum. PfEMP1 is synthesized during the parasite's blood stage inside the RBC, during which the clinical symptoms of falciparum malaria are manifested. Acting as both an antigen and adhesion protein, it is thought to play a key role in the high level of virulence associated with P. falciparum. It was discovered in 1984 when it was reported that infected RBCs had unusually large-sized cell membrane proteins, and these proteins had antibody-binding (antigenic) properties. An elusive protein, its chemical structure and molecular properties were revealed only after a decade, in 1995. It is now established that there is not one but a large family of PfEMP1 proteins, genetically regulated (encoded) by a group of about 60 genes called var. Each P. falciparum is able to switch on and off specific var genes to produce a functionally different protein, thereby evading the host's immune system. RBCs carrying PfEMP1 on their surface stick to endothelial cells, which facilitates further binding with uninfected RBCs, ultimately helping the parasite to both spread to other RBCs as well as bringing about the fatal symptoms of P. falciparum malaria.
Steinernema carpocapsae is an entomopathogenic nematode and a member of the family Steinernematidae. It is a parasitic roundworm that has evolved an insect-killing symbiosis with bacteria, and kills its hosts within a few days of infection. This parasite releases its bacterial symbiont along with a variety of proteins into the host after infection, and together the bacteria and nematode overcome host immunity and kill the host quickly. As a consequence, S. carpocapsae has been widely adapted for use as a biological control agent in agriculture and pest control. S. carpocapsae is considered a generalist parasite and has been effectively used to control a variety of insects including: Webworms, cutworms, armyworms, girdlers, some weevils, and wood-borers. This species is an example of an "ambush" forager, standing on its tail in an upright position near the soil surface and attaching to passing hosts, even capable of jumping. As an ambush forager, S. carpocapsae is thought to be especially effective when applied against highly mobile surface-adapted insects. S. carpocapsae can sense carbon dioxide production, making the spiracles a key portal of entry into its insect hosts. It is most effective at temperatures ranging from 22–28 °C (72–82 °F).
The Plasmodium helical interspersed subtelomeric proteins (PHIST) or ring-infected erythrocyte surface antigens (RESA) are a family of protein domains found in the malaria-causing Plasmodium species. It was initially identified as a short four-helical conserved region in the single-domain export proteins, but the identification of this part associated with a DnaJ domain in P. falciparum RESA has led to its reclassification as the RESA N-terminal domain. This domain has been classified into three subfamilies, PHISTa, PHISTb, and PHISTc.
The Morganellaceae are a family of Gram-negative bacteria that include some important human pathogens formerly classified as Enterobacteriaceae. This family is a member of the order Enterobacterales in the class Gammaproteobacteria of the phylum Proteobacteria. Genera in this family include the type genus Morganella, along with Arsenophonus, Cosenzaea, Moellerella, Photorhabdus, Proteus, Providencia and Xenorhabdus.
Tropodithietic acid is a tropolone derivative produced by the marine bacteria Phaeobacter piscinae, Phaeobacter inhibens and Phaeobacter gallaeciensis. Its structure is composed by a dithiete moiety fused to tropone-2-carboxylic acid.
References
- 1 2 LPSN lpsn.dsmz.de
- ↑ Straininfo of Xenorhabdus szentirmaii
- ↑ Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen
- ↑ UniProt
- ↑ Nguyen, Khuong B.; (editors), David J. Hunt (2007). Entomopathogenic nematodes systematics, phylogeny and bacterial symbionts. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-474-2239-6.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
- ↑ Brachmann, AO; Forst, S; Furgani, GM; Fodor, A; Bode, HB (December 2006). "Xenofuranones A and B: phenylpyruvate dimers from Xenorhabdus szentirmaii". Journal of Natural Products. 69 (12): 1830–2. doi:10.1021/np060409n. PMID 17190473.
- ↑ Nollmann, Friederike I; Dowling, Andrea; Kaiser, Marcel; Deckmann, Klaus; Grösch, Sabine; ffrench-Constant, Richard; Bode, Helge B (11 April 2012). "Synthesis of szentiamide, a depsipeptide from entomopathogenic Xenorhabdus szentirmaii with activity against Plasmodium falciparum". Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry. 8: 528–533. doi:10.3762/bjoc.8.60. PMC 3343279 . PMID 22563351.
- ↑ Raquel, Campos-Herrera (2015). Nematode Pathogenesis of Insects and Other Pests: Ecology and Applied Technologies for Sustainable Plant and Crop Protection. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-18266-7.
