| Zygogramma exclamationis | |
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| Zygogramma exclamationis | |
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| Species: | Z. exclamationis |
| Binomial name | |
| Zygogramma exclamationis (Fabricius, 1798) | |
Zygogramma exclamationis, commonly known as the sunflower beetle, is a species of leaf beetle belonging to the family Zygogramma. [1] It is regarded as a pest of sunflower crops in North America.
Z. exclamationis is a small leaf beetle, 6–12 mm in length, 2–4 mm wide, [2] with a brown pronotum and yellow elytra marked with three, elongated brown stripes and a single, shorter, lateral stripe ending at the middle of the wing in a small dot that resembles an exclamation point. [3] This arrangement bears similarities to the exclamation mark from where this species gets its Latin name. Adult beetles are morphological similar to the Colorado potato beetle, a pest of potato crops. [4]
The larvae are humpbacked in appearance, yellow-green in colour, [3] [5] and may measure 0.35 inches (8.9 mm) in length at maturity. [4]
Z. exclamationis is native to North America. [1] Adult beetles are phytophagous and associated with the sunflower species Helianthus annuus (common sunflower), H. giganteus (giant sunflower), and H. petiolaris (prairie sunflower). [6] It is a major economic pest to sunflower production in North America. [3]
Overwintering adults emerge in late May or early June. Shortly after emergence, the beetles begin to feed, mate and lay eggs singly on stems and undersides of leaves. [5] Adults live for about 8 weeks and are capable of laying eggs for most of this period. [5] Each female lays approximately 850 eggs, with a range of 200 to 2,000 eggs. [3] Eggs hatch into larvae after about one week; the young larvae feed on the leaves at night. [7] They hide among the bracts of the flower bud and amongst leaves during the day. The larvae feed for about two weeks but, because of the long egg laying period, larvae may be present in the field for about six weeks in June or July. [7]
The larvae have four instars. When mature, the larvae enter the soil to pupate in earthen cells. The pupal stage lasts from 10 days to two weeks. Adults of the new generation emerge and feed for a short period on the sunflower head or on the uppermost leaves of the plant; they do not mate or lay eggs before re-entering the soil to overwinter. [8]
There are many predators of Z. exclamationis in its different life stages. Eggs are predated by the melyrid beetle Collops vittatus , the thirteen spotted ladybird Hippodamia tredecimpunctata , and the convergent ladybird H. convergens . [3] Larvae of the common green lacewing Chrysoperla carnea consume both eggs and larvae. [3] The spined soldier bug Podius maculiventris predates both larvae and adults. [3]
Eggs of Z. exclamationis are parasitised by the pteromalid wasp Erixestus winnemana , larvae by the tachinid fly species Myiopharus macellus and M. doryphorae . [3] The rate of parasitisation is high in some fields in Canada and the USA can be as high as 70-100%. [3]
The sunflower beetle is considered to be one of the most damaging defoliators of cultivated sunflowers in North America. [9] Advice published by Kansas State University in 2016 recommends the use of insecticide treatment of sunflower crops if any of the following conditions are met: one adult beetle is present per seedling, larvae reach numbers of 10-15 per plant on upper leaves, or 25 percent defoliation occurs and pupation has not begun. [10] Given the short larval and adult lifecycle, delayed planting of sunflower crops is effective in preventing yield reductions caused by sunflower beetle. [11] Recommended insecticides for infested crops include: Beta-cyfluthrin, Carbaryl, Deltamethrin, Esfenvalerate, Gamma-cyhalothrin, Lambda-cyhalothrin, and Zeta-cypermethrin. [10]
The insects of the beetle family Chrysomelidae are commonly known as leaf beetles, and include over 37,000 species in more than 2,500 genera, making up one of the largest and most commonly encountered of all beetle families. Numerous subfamilies are recognized, but the precise taxonomy and systematics are likely to change with ongoing research.
The common asparagus beetle is an important pest of asparagus crops both in Europe and in North America. Asparagus is its only food plant. The beetle is 6.0 mm to 9.5 mm long and slightly elongated. It is metallic blue-black in color with cream or yellow spots on its red-bordered elytra. The larvae are fat gray grubs with dark heads.
The Western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera, is one of the most devastating corn rootworm species in North America, especially in the midwestern corn-growing areas such as Iowa. A related species, the Northern corn rootworm, D. barberi, co-inhabits in much of the range and is fairly similar in biology.
The Mexican bean beetle is a species of lady beetle that can be an agricultural pest. It is one of the few North American lady beetles that feed on plants rather than other insects. It is found throughout Mexico and the eastern United States, and is abundant in the wetter and more heavily irrigated areas west of the Rocky Mountains. It does not tolerate extremely dry areas.
Zygogramma is a large genus of leaf beetles in the subfamily Chrysomelinae, which includes approximately 100 species. 13 species occur north of Mexico.
Agasicles hygrophila is a species of leaf beetle known by the common name alligator weed flea beetle. It has been used successfully as an agent of biological pest control against the noxious aquatic plant known as alligator weed.
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Diorhabda carinata is a species of leaf beetle known as the larger tamarisk beetle which feeds on tamarisk trees from Ukraine, eastern Turkey and Syria east to northwest China, Kyrgyzstan and Pakistan, extending as far south as southern Iran. It is used in North America as a biological pest control agent against saltcedar or tamarisk, an invasive species in arid and semi-arid ecosystems.
Diorhabda sublineata is a leaf beetle known as the subtropical tamarisk beetle (STB). The species was first described by Hippolyte Lucas in 1849. It feeds on tamarisk trees from Portugal, Spain and France to Morocco, Senegal, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Yemen, and Iraq. It is used in North America as a biological pest control agent against saltcedar or tamarisk, an invasive species in arid and semi-arid ecosystems.
Coleomegilla maculata, commonly known as the spotted lady beetle, pink spotted lady beetle or twelve-spotted lady beetle, is a large coccinellid beetle native to North America. The adults and larvae feed primarily on aphids and the species has been used as a biological control agent. Based on name connotation and to avoid confusion with other species also called "spotted ladybeetle", spotted pink ladybeetle is probably the most appropriate common name for this species.
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The Epilachninae are a subfamily of the family of lady beetles, the Coccinellidae, in the order Coleoptera. Superficially, they look much like other ladybirds in the larger subfamily Coccinellinae, but they differ importantly in their biology, in that the members of the subfamily are largely or completely leaf-feeding herbivores rather than being predators. Accordingly, several members of the subfamily are crop pests, and sometimes cause locally serious crop losses.
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