Artemis Accords

Last updated

Artemis Accords
The Artemis Accords: Principles for Cooperation in the Civil Exploration and Use of the Moon, Mars, Comets, and Asteroids for Peaceful Purposes
Map of the signatory nation of the Artemis Accords.png
Participation in the Artemis Accords (April 2024)
  Signatory nation

Type Space law
Signed13 October 2020;3 years ago (13 October 2020)
Parties40
LanguagesEnglish
Full text
Wikisource-logo.svg Artemis Accords at Wikisource

The Artemis Accords is a series of non-binding bilateral arrangements [1] between the United States government and other world governments that elaborates on the norms expected to be followed in outer space. [2] The accords are related to the Artemis program, an American-led effort to return humans to the Moon by 2026, with the ultimate goal of expanding space exploration to Mars and beyond. [3] As of May 15, 2024, forty countries have signed the accords, including twenty in Europe, eight in Asia, five in South America, three in North America, three in Africa and two in Oceania.

Contents

Drafted by NASA and the U.S. Department of State, the Accords establish a framework for cooperation in the civil exploration and peaceful use of the Moon, Mars, and other astronomical objects. [4] They are explicitly grounded in the United Nations Outer Space Treaty of 1967, which signatories are obliged to uphold, and cite most major U.N.-brokered conventions constituting space law. [5] [6] [7] [8] [note 1]

The Accords were signed on 13 October 2020 by representatives of the national space agencies of eight countries: Australia, Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and the United States. [5] The Accords remain open for signature indefinitely, as NASA anticipates more nations joining. [9] Additional signatories can choose to directly participate in Artemis program activities, or may agree simply to commit to the principles for responsible exploration of the Moon as set out in the Accords. [10]

List of Parties

StateContinentSignedOfficial signing
Flag of Australia (converted).svg  Australia Oceania 13 Oct 2020Dr. Megan Clark, Head of the Australian Space Agency [11]
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg  Canada North America 13 Oct 2020Lisa Campbell, president of the Canadian Space Agency [12]
Flag of Italy.svg  Italy Europe 13 Oct 2020Riccardo Fraccaro, Undersecretary of State at the Presidency of the Italian Council of Ministers [13]
Flag of Japan.svg  Japan Asia 13 Oct 2020Hagiuda Koichi, Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology and Inoue Shinji, Minister of State for Space Policy [14]
Flag of Luxembourg.svg  Luxembourg Europe13 Oct 2020Franz Fayot, Minister of the Economy [15]
Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg  United Arab Emirates Asia13 Oct 2020Sarah Al Amiri, Minister for Advanced Technology and Chair of the United Arab Emirates Space Agency [16]
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom Europe13 Oct 2020Dr. Graham Turnock, Chief Executive of the UK Space Agency [17]

The signature of the UK has been extended to the Isle of Man on 27 July 2021 [18]

Flag of the United States.svg  United States North America13 Oct 2020James Bridenstine, NASA Administrator
Flag of Ukraine.svg  Ukraine Europe12 Nov 2020 [19]
Flag of South Korea.svg  South Korea Asia24 May 2021Lim Hyesook, Minister of Science and ICT [20]
Flag of New Zealand.svg  New Zealand Oceania31 May 2021Peter Crabtree, New Zealand Space Agency [21]
Flag of Brazil.svg  Brazil South America 15 Jun 2021Marcos Pontes, Minister of Science, Technology, and Innovation [22]
Flag of Poland.svg  Poland Europe26 Oct 2021Grzegorz Wrochna, president of Polish Space Agency (POLSA) [23]
Flag of Mexico.svg  Mexico North America9 Dec 2021Marcelo Ebrard Casaubon, Secretary of Foreign Affairs [24]
Flag of Israel.svg  Israel Asia26 Jan 2022Uri Oron, Director General of the Israel Space Agency [25]
Flag of Romania.svg  Romania Europe1 Mar 2022Marius-Ioan Piso, president and CEO of the Romanian Space Agency [26]
Flag of Bahrain.svg  Bahrain Asia2 Mar 2022Dr. Mohamed Al Aseeri, CEO of National Space Science Agency (NSSA) [27]
Flag of Singapore.svg  Singapore Asia28 Mar 2022Gan Kim Yong, Minister for Trade and Industry [28]
Flag of Colombia.svg  Colombia South America10 May 2022Marta Lucía Ramírez, Vice President and Foreign Minister [29]
Flag of France.svg  France Europe7 Jun 2022Philippe Baptiste, president of the Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES) [30]
Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg  Saudi Arabia Asia14 Jul 2022Mohammed bin Saud Al-Tamimi, CEO of the Saudi Space Commission [31]
Flag of Nigeria.svg  Nigeria Africa 13 Dec 2022Isa Ali Ibrahim, Minister of Communications and Digital Economy [32]
Flag of Rwanda.svg  Rwanda Africa13 Dec 2022Francis Ngabo, CEO of Rwanda Space Agency [32]
Flag of the Czech Republic.svg  Czech Republic Europe3 May 2023Jan Lipavský, Minister of Foreign Affairs [33]
Flag of Spain.svg  Spain Europe30 May 2023Diana Morant, Minister of Science and Innovation [34]
Flag of Ecuador.svg  Ecuador South America21 Jun 2023Gustavo Manrique Miranda, Minister of Foreign Affairs [35]
Flag of India.svg  India Asia22 Jun 2023Taranjit Singh Sandhu, Ambassador of India to the United States [36]
Flag of Argentina.svg  Argentina South America27 Jul 2023Daniel Filmus, Minister of Science, Technology, and Innovation [37]
Flag of Germany.svg  Germany Europe14 Sep 2023Dr. Walther Pelzer, Director General of the German Space Agency at DLR [38]
Flag of Iceland.svg  Iceland EuropeOct 2023 [39]
Flag of the Netherlands.svg  Netherlands Europe1 Nov 2023Harm van de Wetering, Director of Netherlands Space Office (NSO) [39]
Flag of Bulgaria.svg  Bulgaria Europe9 Nov 2023Milena Stoycheva, Minister of Innovation and Growth [40]
Flag of Angola.svg  Angola Africa30 Nov 2023 [41]
Flag of Belgium (civil).svg  Belgium Europe23 Jan 2024Hadja Lahbib, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Belgium [42]
Flag of Greece.svg  Greece Europe9 Feb 2024Giorgos Gerapetritis, Minister of Foreign Affairs [43]
Flag of Uruguay.svg  Uruguay South America15 Feb 2024 [44]
Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg   Switzerland Europe15 April 2024 [45]
Flag of Sweden.svg  Sweden Europe16 April 2024Dr. Mats Persson, Minister for Education [46]
Flag of Slovenia.svg  Slovenia Europe19 April 2024 [47]
Flag of Lithuania.svg  Lithuania Europe15 May 2024Aušrinė Armonaitė, Minister of Economy and Innovation [48]

History

On 5 May 2020, Reuters published an exclusive report that the Donald Trump administration was drafting a new international agreement for mining on the Moon, which would draw from the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. [49] [50] Ten days later, then-NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine officially announced the Artemis Accords, a series of agreements with partner nations aimed at establishing a governing framework for exploring and mining the Moon. [51]

The Accords originated from the eponymous Artemis Program, an American plan launched in 2017 to send the first woman and the next man to the Moon by 2024. [52] Bridenstine stated that the agreements were intended to create a uniform set of guidelines for countries to avoid potential conflict or misunderstanding in future space endeavors; governments that sign the Accords may formally take part in the Artemis Program. [52] The Accords were drafted by NASA, the U.S. Department of State, and the newly re-established National Space Council; a draft was released to several governments for consultation before the final document was announced in May 2020. [51] [49]

On 13 October 2020, in a recorded and livestreamed ceremony, the Accords were signed by the directors of the national space agencies of the United States, Australia, Canada, Japan, Luxembourg, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United Arab Emirates. [5] [53] The head of the Ukrainian national space agency signed the Accords exactly one month later. [19] [54]

In 2021, South Korea became the tenth country to sign the Accords, [20] [55] with New Zealand joining a week later. [21] The following June, Brazil became the first country in Latin America to join the Artemis Accords, [56] after previously indicating its intent to sign in 2020. [22] [57] Poland signed the Accords at the 72nd International Astronautical Congress (IAC) in Dubai, with the head of the Polish Space Agency expressing a desire to develop indigenous Polish space technology. [23] Mexico joined the Accords in December 2023. [24]

In 2022, the number of signatories of the Accords more than doubled from the previous year: Israel signed, [58] followed by Romania, [59] Bahrain, [60] and Singapore [61] in March; Colombia in May, [29] and France on 7 June 2022, the 60th anniversary of the founding of its space program [30] (pursuant to meetings in November 2021 between U.S. Vice President Kamala Harris and French President Emmanuel Macron in which he expressed France's intent to join). [62] [63] [64] [65] Saudi Arabia signed the Accords on 14 July 2022, becoming the second Middle Eastern and Arab country to join. [31] On 13 December 2022, at the United States–Africa Leaders Summit, Rwanda and Nigeria became the first African nations to sign the Artemis Accords. [32] [66]

Representatives from signatory nations held their first meeting on 19 September 2022 at the IAC to discuss the Accords and cooperation in space more broadly. [67] [68]

In 2023, signatories to the accords continued to grow, including: the Czech Republic [69] [33] and Spain [70] both signing within a single month, followed by Educador as well as India signing the accords [36] during prime minister Narendra Modi's state visit to the U.S. [71] [72] In September 2023, Director General of the German Space Agency at DLR and Member of the DLR Executive Board Walther Pelzer, signed the Accords for Germany in the German embassy in Washington D.C. The ceremony was attended and witnessed as well by Space-Coordinator of the German Government, Anna Christmann, the current German ambassador in Washington, Andreas Michaelis as well as the Administrator of NASA, Bill Nelson. [73] Iceland, the Netherlands and Bulgaria joined in October/November 2023. Angola joined in December 2023 during a ceremony in Washington, D.C. [74]

In 2024, Belgium, [75] Greece, [76] Uruguay [44] and Switzerland [77] joined the accords.

Accords

Although a prerequisite for taking part in the Artemis Program, the Accords have been interpreted as codifying key principles and guidelines for exploring space generally. [7] Their stated purpose is to "provide for operational implementation of important obligations contained in the Outer Space Treaty and other instruments." The Accords are a single document, signed by each country that commits to the Accords' principles. Bilateral agreements between space agencies for specific operations on the Moon and beyond are expected to reference the Accords and implement them in particular projects.

The provisions: [78]

Reactions

Support

The Artemis Accords have generally been welcomed for advancing international law and cooperation in space. [7] Observers note that the substance of the Accords is "uncontentious" and represent a "significant political attempt to codify key principles of space law" for governing nations' space activities. [7] International legal scholars also credit the agreement with helping influence space exploration in the direction of uniform standards of cooperation and peaceful use. [79] The Accords have also been lauded for being the first time several nations have agreed to recognize the presence of human cultural heritage in outer space and the need to protect it. [80]

With Australia signing and ratifying both the Moon Treaty as well as the Artemis Accords, there has been a discussion if they can be harmonized. [81] In this light an Implementation Agreement for the Moon Treaty has been advocated for, as a way to compensate for the shortcomings of the Moon Treaty and to harmonize it with other laws, allowing it to be more widely accepted. [82] [83]

Criticism

The Accords have also been criticized for allegedly being "too centered on American and commercial interests." Russia has condemned them as a "blatant attempt to create international space law that favors the United States." [84] Beside possibly being an opportunity for China in light of the Wolf Amendment, Chinese government affiliated media has called the Accords "akin to European colonial enclosure land-taking methods." [85] Russia and China have since reached an understanding to work together on the Chinese International Lunar Research Station concept, to serve as a potential competing option for third parties such as Pakistan and the UAE. [86]

Two researchers writing in Science magazine's Policy Forum have called on countries to speak up about their objections, and argued that the United States should go through the United Nations treaty process in order to negotiate on space mining. They were concerned NASA's Accords, if accepted by many nations, would enable the Accords' interpretation of the Outer Space Treaty to prevail. [84] Acceptance of the Artemis Accords is a prerequisite for participation in NASA's Artemis lunar program. [84]

Critics also contend that since the Outer Space Treaty expressly forbids nations from staking claim to another planetary body, the Accords violate space law by allowing signatories to lay claim to any resources extracted from celestial objects. [87] Frans von der Dunk of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln claims the Accords strengthen "the US interpretation of the Outer Space Treaty", namely "the basic right for individual States to allow the private sector to become engaged" in commercial activities. The weakened alternative interpretation is that "unilateral approval of commercial exploitation is not in compliance with the Outer Space Treaty, and that only an international regime, notably—presumably—including an international licensing system, could legitimise such commercial exploitation." [88] [89]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Except the Moon Treaty, despite Australia having ratified it.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outer Space Treaty</span> Basis of international space law

The Outer Space Treaty, formally the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, is a multilateral treaty that forms the basis of international space law. Negotiated and drafted under the auspices of the United Nations, it was opened for signature in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on 27 January 1967, entering into force on 10 October 1967. As of March 2024, 115 countries are parties to the treaty—including all major spacefaring nations—and another 22 are signatories.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space law</span> Area of national and international law governing activities in outer space

Space law is the body of law governing space-related activities, encompassing both international and domestic agreements, rules, and principles. Parameters of space law include space exploration, liability for damage, weapons use, rescue efforts, environmental preservation, information sharing, new technologies, and ethics. Other fields of law, such as administrative law, intellectual property law, arms control law, insurance law, environmental law, criminal law, and commercial law, are also integrated within space law.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Colonization of the Moon</span> Settlement on the Moon

Colonization of the Moon is a process or concept employed by some proposals for robotic or human exploitation and settlement endeavours on the Moon. Settling of the Moon is, therefore, a more specific concept of lunar habitation, for which the broader concept of colonization is often used as a synonym, a use that is contested in the light of colonialism.

The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, better known as the Moon Treaty or Moon Agreement, is a multilateral treaty that turns jurisdiction of all celestial bodies over to the participant countries. Thus, all activities would conform to international law, including the United Nations Charter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extraterrestrial real estate</span> Ownership claims of property on other planets, moons, or parts of outer space

Extraterrestrial real estate refers to claims of land ownership on other planets, natural satellites, or parts of space by certain organizations or individuals. Previous claims are not recognized by any authority, and have no legal standing. Nevertheless, some private individuals and organizations have claimed ownership of celestial bodies, such as the Moon, and are actively involved in "selling" parts of them through certificates of ownership termed "Lunar deeds", "Martian deeds" or similar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NASA</span> American space and aeronautics agency

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is an independent agency of the U.S. federal government responsible for the civil space program, aeronautics research, and space research. Established in 1958, it succeeded the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) to give the U.S. space development effort a distinct civilian orientation, emphasizing peaceful applications in space science. It has since led most of America's space exploration programs, including Project Mercury, Project Gemini, the 1968–1972 Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station, and the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA supports the International Space Station (ISS) along with the Commercial Crew Program, and oversees the development of the Orion spacecraft and the Space Launch System for the lunar Artemis program.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Politics of outer space</span> Political considerations of space policy

The politics of outer space includes space treaties, law in space, international cooperation and conflict in space exploration, international economics, and the hypothetical political impact of any contact with extraterrestrial intelligence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space policy of the United States</span>

The space policy of the United States includes both the making of space policy through the legislative process, and the implementation of that policy in the United States' civilian and military space programs through regulatory agencies. The early history of United States space policy is linked to the US–Soviet Space Race of the 1960s, which gave way to the Space Shuttle program. At the moment, the US space policy is aimed at the exploration of the Moon and the subsequent colonization of Mars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artemis 1</span> 2022 uncrewed Moon-orbiting NASA mission

Artemis 1, officially Artemis I and formerly Exploration Mission-1 (EM-1), was an uncrewed Moon-orbiting mission. As the first major spaceflight of NASA's Artemis program, Artemis 1 marked the agency's return to lunar exploration after the conclusion of the Apollo program five decades earlier. It was the first integrated flight test of the Orion spacecraft and Space Launch System (SLS) rocket, and its main objective was to test the Orion spacecraft, especially its heat shield, in preparation for subsequent Artemis missions. These missions seek to reestablish a human presence on the Moon and demonstrate technologies and business approaches needed for future scientific studies, including exploration of Mars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artemis 2</span> Artemis programs second lunar flight

Artemis 2 is a scheduled mission of the NASA-led Artemis program. It will use the second launch of the Space Launch System (SLS) and include the first crewed mission of the Orion spacecraft. The mission is scheduled for no earlier than September 2025. Four astronauts will perform a flyby of the Moon and return to Earth, becoming the first crew to travel beyond low Earth orbit since Apollo 17 in 1972. Artemis 2 will be the first crewed launch from Launch Complex 39B of the Kennedy Space Center since STS-116 in 2006.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polish Space Agency</span> Polish state space agency

The Polish Space Agency is the space agency of Poland, administered by the Ministry of Development, Labour and Technology. It is a member of the European Space Agency. The agency is focused on developing satellite networks and space technologies in Poland. It was established on 26 September 2014, and its headquarters are located in Gdańsk, Poland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artemis 3</span> Third orbital flight of the Artemis program

Artemis 3 is planned to be the first crewed Moon landing mission of the Artemis program and the first crewed flight of the Starship HLS lander. Artemis 3 is planned to be the second crewed Artemis mission and the first American crewed lunar landing since Apollo 17 in December 1972. In December 2023, the Government Accountability Office reported that the mission is not likely to occur before 2027; as of January 2024, NASA officially expects Artemis 3 to launch no earlier than September 2026 due to issues with the valves in Orion's life support system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lunar Gateway</span> Lunar orbital space station under development

The Lunar Gateway, or simply Gateway, is a space station which Artemis program participants plan to assemble in an orbit near the Moon. The Gateway is intended to serve as a communication hub, science laboratory, and habitation module for astronauts. It is a multinational collaborative project: participants include NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and the Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC). The Gateway is planned to be the first space station beyond low Earth orbit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New Zealand Space Agency</span>

The New Zealand Space Agency is an agency within the New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (MBIE) charged with "space policy, regulation and business development" relating to space activities in New Zealand.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artemis program</span> NASA-led lunar exploration program

The Artemis program is a Moon exploration program that is led by the United States' National Aeronoautics and Space Administration (NASA) and was formally established in 2017 via Space Policy Directive 1. The Artemis program is intended to reestablish a human presence on the Moon for the first time since the Apollo 17 moon mission in 1972. The program's stated long-term goal is to establish a permanent base on the Moon to facilitate human missions to Mars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artemis 4</span> Fourth orbital flight of the Artemis program

Artemis 4 is a planned mission of the NASA-led Artemis program. The mission will include the fourth use of a Space Launch System (SLS) launch vehicle, will send an Orion spacecraft with four astronauts to the Lunar Gateway space station, install a new module on the Gateway, and conduct the second lunar landing of the Artemis program.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Michelle Hanlon</span> American lawyer

Michelle Lea Desyin Slawecki Hanlon is an American space lawyer and space law professor. She is the co-founder, president and chief executive officer of For All Moonkind, and Executive Director of the Center for Air and Space Law at the University of Mississippi School of Law.

The Luxembourg Space Agency (LSA) is the national space agency of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. It was founded on September 12, 2018, by Luxembourg's Economy Minister Étienne Schneider.

References

  1. ↑ Foust, Jeff (13 October 2020). "Eight countries sign Artemis Accords". SpaceNews. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
  2. ↑ "Artemis Accords - NASA" . Retrieved 27 February 2024.
  3. ↑ Dunbar, Brian (23 July 2019). "What is Artemis?". NASA. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
  4. ↑ "NASA: Artemis Accords". NASA. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
  5. 1 2 3 Potter, Sean (13 October 2020). "NASA, International Partners Advance Cooperation with Artemis Accords". NASA. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
  6. ↑ "Fact Sheet: Artemis Accords - United for Peaceful Exploration of Deep Space". U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Brazil. 20 October 2020. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Newman, Christopher (19 October 2020). "Artemis Accords: why many countries are refusing to sign Moon exploration agreement". The Conversation . Retrieved 17 June 2021.
  8. ↑ "The Artemis Accords and the Future of International Space Law". ASIL. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
  9. ↑ "NASA, International Partners Advance Cooperation with First Signings of Artemis Accords". NASA. 13 October 2020. Archived from the original on 15 October 2020. Additional countries will join the Artemis Accords in the months and years ahead, as NASA continues to work with its international partners to establish a safe, peaceful, and prosperous future in space. Working with emerging space agencies, as well as existing partners and well-established space agencies, will add new energy and capabilities to ensure the entire world can benefit from the Artemis journey of exploration and discovery.
  10. ↑ Howell, Elizabeth (25 August 2022). "Artemis Accords: Why the international moon exploration framework matters". Space.com. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
  11. ↑ "Australia signs NASA's Artemis Accords". Australian Department of Industry, Science and Resources. 14 October 2020.
  12. ↑ "Signing of the Artemis Accords". Government of Canada. 13 October 2020.
  13. ↑ "International Partners Advance Cooperation With First Signings of the Artemis Accords". Italian Space Agency. 13 October 2020.
  14. ↑ "Eight nations sign Artemis Accords on Space Exploration". Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. 13 October 2020.
  15. ↑ "Minister of the Economy Franz Fayot signs the Artemis Accords on behalf of Luxembourg at the International Aeronautical Congress". Luxembourg Space Agency. 13 October 2020.
  16. ↑ "United Arab Emirates Accedes to Artemis Accords". PRNewswire. 13 October 2020.
  17. ↑ "UK and NASA sign international agreement ahead of mission to the Moon". GOV.UK. 13 October 2020.
  18. ↑ Quayle, Howard (27 July 2021). "Artemis Accords to be extended to the Isle of Man". Isle of Man Government.
  19. 1 2 "Ukraine becomes the 9th country to sign the Artemis Accords". U.S. Embassy in Ukraine. 17 November 2020. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
  20. 1 2 Potter, Sean (27 May 2021). "Republic of Korea Joins List of Nations to Sign Artemis Accords". NASA.
  21. 1 2 Foust, Jeff (1 June 2021). "New Zealand signs Artemis Accords". SpaceNews.
  22. 1 2 Shea, Garrett (15 June 2021). "Brazil Signs Artemis Accords". NASA.
  23. 1 2 Foust, Jeff (27 October 2021). "Poland signs Artemis Accords". Space News. Retrieved 27 October 2021.
  24. 1 2 Foust, Jeff (10 December 2021). "Mexico joins Artemis Accords". SpaceNews. Retrieved 10 December 2021.
  25. ↑ "Israel Signs Artemis Accords". NASA. 27 January 2022.
  26. ↑ "Romania Signs Artemis Accords". NASA. 1 March 2022.
  27. ↑ "Bahrain Signs Artemis Accords". NASA. 8 March 2022. Retrieved 8 March 2022.
  28. ↑ "Republic of Singapore Signs the Artemis Accords". United States Department of State. 28 March 2022.
  29. 1 2 Potter, Sean (10 May 2022). "NASA Welcomes Vice President of Colombia for Artemis Accords Signing". NASA. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  30. 1 2 Potter, Sean (7 June 2022). "France Signs Artemis Accords as French Space Agency Marks Milestone". NASA. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  31. 1 2 Potter, Sean (14 July 2022). "Saudi Arabia Signs Artemis Accords". NASA. Retrieved 16 July 2022.
  32. 1 2 3 House, The White (13 December 2022). "STATEMENT: Strengthening the U.S.-Africa Partnership in Space". The White House. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
  33. 1 2 McGuinness, Jackie; Bardan, Roxana (3 May 2023). O'Shea, Claire (ed.). "NASA Welcomes Czech Foreign Minister for Artemis Accords Signing". NASA. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  34. ↑ Jones, Andrew (2 June 2023). "Spain signs the Artemis Accords for peaceful moon exploration". Space.com. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
  35. ↑ O’Shea, Claire (21 June 2023). "NASA Welcomes Ecuador as 26th Artemis Accords Signatory". NASA.
  36. 1 2 O’Shea, Claire (23 June 2023). "NASA Welcomes India as 27th Artemis Accords Signatory". NASA. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  37. ↑ Bardan, Roxana (27 July 2023). "NASA Welcomes Argentina as Newest Artemis Accords Signatory". NASA.
  38. ↑ "NASA Welcomes Germany as Newest Artemis Accords Signatory". NASA. 15 September 2023.
  39. 1 2 Bardan, Roxana (1 November 2023). "NASA Welcomes Netherlands as Newest Artemis Accords Signatory". NASA.
  40. ↑ Donaldson, Abbey (9 November 2023). "Bulgaria Signs Artemis Accords at NASA Headquarters; Joins 31 Nations". NASA.
  41. ↑ Bardan, Roxana (1 December 2023). "NASA Welcomes Angola as Newest Artemis Accords Signatory". NASA.
  42. ↑ Bardan, Roxana (24 January 2024). "NASA Welcomes Belgium as Newest Artemis Accords Signatory". NASA.
  43. ↑ Bardan, Roxana (9 February 2024). "NASA Welcomes Greece as Newest Artemis Accords Signatory". NASA.
  44. 1 2 Bardan, Roxana (9 February 2024). "NASA Welcomes Uruguay Foreign Minister for Artemis Accords Signing". NASA.
  45. ↑ "NASA Invites Media to Switzerland Artemis Accords Signing Ceremony - NASA" . Retrieved 15 April 2024.
  46. ↑ "NASA Embraces Sweden as Newest Member of Artemis Accords Family - NASA" . Retrieved 16 April 2024.
  47. ↑ https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/slovenia-signs-artemis-accords-joins-pursuit-of-safer-space/
  48. ↑ https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/artemis-accords-reach-40-signatories-as-nasa-welcomes-lithuania/
  49. 1 2 "NASA: Artemis Accords". nasa.gov. NASA. Retrieved 16 May 2020.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  50. ↑ "Exclusive: Trump administration drafting 'Artemis Accords' pact for moon mining - sources". Reuters. 6 May 2020. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
  51. 1 2 Wall, Mike (15 May 2020). "NASA lays out 'Artemis Accords' for responsible moon exploration". space.com. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
  52. 1 2 Grush, Loren (13 October 2020). "US and seven other countries sign NASA's Artemis Accords to set rules for exploring the Moon". The Verge. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
  53. ↑ Grush, Lauren (13 October 2020). "US and seven other countries sign NASA's Artemis Accords to set rules for exploring the Moon". The Verge . Retrieved 13 October 2020.
  54. ↑ "Україна стала дев'ятою країною, яка підписала Домовленості в рамках програми "Артеміда"". www.nkau.gov.ua (in Ukrainian). Retrieved 15 November 2020.
  55. ↑ Potter, Sean (26 May 2021). "Republic of Korea Joins List of Nations to Sign Artemis Accords". NASA. Retrieved 26 May 2021.
  56. ↑ Bill Nelson [@senbillnelson] (15 June 2021). "Brazil joins 11 other nations as a signatory of the #Artemis Accords today! As the 1st country in South America to make this commitment to a sustainable space environment, Brazil shows the global impact of the Accords around the world. Thanks for your support, @Astro_Pontes!" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
  57. ↑ Potter, Sean (14 December 2020). "NASA Administrator Signs Statement of Intent with Brazil on Artemis". NASA. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
  58. ↑ אייכנר, איתמר (26 January 2022). "זה רשמי: ישראל הצטרפה ל"הסכמי ארטמיס" בחלל" [It's official: Israel has joined the "Artemis Accords" in space]. ynet (in Hebrew).
  59. ↑ "Romania Signs Artemis Accords". NASA . 1 March 2022. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  60. ↑ "Bahrain Signs Artemis Accords". NASA . 8 March 2022. Retrieved 8 March 2022.
  61. ↑ "Republic of Singapore Signs the Artemis Accords". United States Department of State . 28 March 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2022.
  62. ↑ Erwin, Sandra (10 November 2021). "U.S. and France agree to expand cooperation on space issues". Space News. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  63. ↑ "La France rejoint les " accords Artemis ", le programme de la Nasa sur l'exploration de la Lune". Ouest-France.fr (in French). 7 June 2022. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  64. ↑ "France joins Artemis Accords". SpaceNews. 8 June 2022. Retrieved 9 June 2022.
  65. ↑ Grush, Loren (10 June 2022). "Why France signing NASA's lunar exploration pact is the most important signature yet". The Verge. Retrieved 11 June 2022.
  66. ↑ Foust, Jeff (13 December 2022). "First African nations sign Artemis Accords". SpaceNews. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
  67. ↑ "Signatories of the U.S.-Led Artemis Accords Meet in Person for the First Time". American Journal of International Law. 117 (1): 133–139. 2023. doi: 10.1017/ajil.2022.88 . ISSN   0002-9300. S2CID   256194865.
  68. ↑ Foust, Jeff (21 September 2022). "Artemis Accords signatories hold first meeting". SpaceNews. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
  69. ↑ Tingley, Brett (3 May 2023). "Czech Republic signs Artemis Accords for 'peaceful, cooperative and sustainable' moon exploration". Space.com. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  70. ↑ Jones, Andrew (2 June 2023). "Spain signs the Artemis Accords for peaceful moon exploration". Space. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
  71. ↑ House, The White (22 June 2023). "FACT SHEET: Republic of India Official State Visit to the United States". The White House. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  72. ↑ Singh, Jagmeet (22 June 2023). "India joins NASA's Artemis Accords for collaborative lunar exploration". TechCrunch. Retrieved 23 June 2023.
  73. ↑ "Weltraum-Forschung - Deutschland unterzeichnet Artemis Accords".
  74. ↑ "US welcomes Angola signing space norms pact Artemis Accords -State Dept". Reuters. 4 December 2023. Retrieved 24 February 2024.
  75. ↑ Foust, Jeff (24 January 2024). "Belgium signs Artemis Accords". SpaceNews. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
  76. ↑ "NASA Welcomes Greece as Newest Artemis Accords Signatory - NASA".
  77. ↑ "NASA Invites Media to Switzerland Artemis Accords Signing Ceremony - NASA" . Retrieved 12 April 2024.
  78. ↑ "The Artemis Accords. Principles for Cooperation in the Civil Exploration and Use of the Moon, Mars, Comets, and Asteroids for Peaceful Purposes" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
  79. ↑ Fidler, David P (2 June 2020). "The Artemis Accords and the Next Generation of Outer Space Governance". Council on Foreign Relations .
  80. ↑ Hanlon, Michelle; Martin, Anne-Sophie (25 October 2020). "#SpaceWatchGL Opinion: In a Historic First, Eight Nations Formally Recognize the Need to Preserve Heritage in Space". SpaceWatch.Global.
  81. ↑ Tronchetti, Fabio; Liu, Hao (3 June 2021). "Australia Between the Moon Agreement and the Artemis Accords". Australian Institute of International Affairs .
  82. ↑ O’Brien, Dennis (29 June 2020). "The Space Review: The Artemis Accords: repeating the mistakes of the Age of Exploration". The Space Review.
  83. ↑ O’Brien, Dennis (1 June 2020). "Legal Support for the Private Sector: An Implementation Agreement for the Moon Treaty". Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology. 3 (1): 49–64. Bibcode:2020AAnST...3...49O. doi:10.1007/s42423-020-00059-w. ISSN   2524-5260. S2CID   257110483.
  84. 1 2 3 Boley A, Byers M (2020). "U.S. policy puts the safe development of space at risk". Science . 370 (6513): 174–175. Bibcode:2020Sci...370..174B. doi:10.1126/science.abd3402. PMID   33033208. S2CID   222211122.
  85. ↑ Ji, Elliot; Cerny, Michael B; Piliero, Raphael J (17 September 2020). "What Does China Think About NASA's Artemis Accords?". The Diplomat .
  86. ↑ Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai (7 June 2021). "The Artemis Accords and Global Lunar Governance". The Diplomat .
  87. ↑ Grush, Loren (13 October 2020). "US and seven other countries sign NASA's Artemis Accords to set rules for exploring the Moon". The Verge. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
  88. ↑ von der Dunk, Frans (2 June 2020). "The Artemis Accords and the law: Is the Moon 'back in business'?". Public Interest Media. Archived from the original on 2 June 2020. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
  89. ↑ Stirn, Alexander (30 October 2020). "Raumfahrt: Wie die USA das Völkerrecht aushebeln könnten". www.spektrum.de (in German). Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.