Mass wasting

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Talus cones produced by mass moving, north shore of Isfjord, Svalbard, Norway TalusConesIsfjorden.jpg
Talus cones produced by mass moving, north shore of Isfjord, Svalbard, Norway
Mass wasting at Palo Duro Canyon, West Texas (2002) Mass Waste Palo Duro 2002.jpg
Mass wasting at Palo Duro Canyon, West Texas (2002)
A rockfall in Grand Canyon National Park GCRockfall.JPG
A rockfall in Grand Canyon National Park

Mass wasting, also known as mass movement, [1] is a general term for the movement of rock or soil down slopes under the force of gravity. It differs from other processes of erosion in that the debris transported by mass wasting is not entrained in a moving medium, such as water, wind, or ice. Types of mass wasting include creep, solifluction, rockfalls, debris flows, and landslides, each with its own characteristic features, and taking place over timescales from seconds to hundreds of years. Mass wasting occurs on both terrestrial and submarine slopes, and has been observed on Earth, Mars, Venus, Jupiter's moon Io, and on many other bodies in the Solar System.

Contents

Subsidence is sometimes regarded as a form of mass wasting. A distinction is then made between mass wasting by subsidence, which involves little horizontal movement, and mass wasting by slope movement.

Rapid mass wasting events, such as landslides, can be deadly and destructive. More gradual mass wasting, such as soil creep, poses challenges to civil engineering, as creep can deform roadways and structures and break pipelines. Mitigation methods include slope stabilization, construction of walls, catchment dams, or other structures to contain rockfall or debris flows, afforestation, or improved drainage of source areas.

Types

Mass wasting is a general term for any process of erosion that is driven by gravity and in which the transported soil and rock is not entrained in a moving medium, such as water, wind, or ice. [2] The presence of water usually aids mass wasting, but the water is not abundant enough to be regarded as a transporting medium. Thus, the distinction between mass wasting and stream erosion lies between a mudflow (mass wasting) and a very muddy stream (stream erosion), without a sharp dividing line. [3] Many forms of mass wasting are recognized, each with its own characteristic features, and taking place over timescales from seconds to hundreds of years. [2]

Based on how the soil, regolith or rock moves downslope as a whole, mass movements can be broadly classified as either creeps or landslides. [4] Subsidence is sometimes also regarded as a form of mass wasting. [5] A distinction is then made between mass wasting by subsidence, which involves little horizontal movement, [6] and mass wasting by slope movement. [7]

Creep

Curved tree trunks in an area of soil creep on Grand Mesa, Colorado, US Grand mesa creep.jpg
Curved tree trunks in an area of soil creep on Grand Mesa, Colorado, US

Soil creep is a slow and long term mass movement. The combination of small movements of soil or rock in different directions over time is directed by gravity gradually downslope. The steeper the slope, the faster the creep. The creep makes trees and shrubs curve to maintain their perpendicularity, and they can trigger landslides if they lose their root footing. The surface soil can migrate under the influence of cycles of freezing and thawing, or hot and cold temperatures, inching its way towards the bottom of the slope forming terracettes. Landslides are often preceded by soil creep accompanied with soil sloughing — loose soil that falls and accumulates at the base of the steepest creep sections. [8]

Solifluction

Solifluction is a form of creep characteristics of arctic or alpine climates. It takes place in soil saturated with moisture that thaws during the summer months to creep downhill. It takes place on moderate slopes, relatively free of vegetation, that are underlain by permafrost and receive a constant supply of new debris by weathering. Solifluction affects the entire slope rather than being confined to channels and can produce terrace-like landforms or stone rivers. [9]

Landslide

Thistle, Utah earthflow seen from US Route 6 rest area Thistle 2010 from US6 rest area.JPG
Thistle, Utah earthflow seen from US Route 6 rest area

A landslide, also called a landslip, [10] is a relatively rapid movement of a large mass of earth and rocks down a hill or a mountainside. Landslides can be further classified by the importance of water in the mass wasting process. In a narrow sense, landslides are rapid movement of large amounts of relatively dry debris down moderate to steep slopes. With increasing water content, the mass wasting takes the form of debris avalanches, then earthflows, then mudflows. Further increase in water content produces a sheetflood, which is a form of sheet erosion rather than mass wasting. [11]

Occurrences

On Earth, mass wasting occurs on both terrestrial and submarine slopes. [12] Submarine mass wasting is particularly common along glaciated coastlines where glaciers are retreating and great quantities of sediments are being released. Submarine slides can transport huge volumes of sediments for hundreds of kilometers in a few hours. [13]

Mass wasting is a common phenomenon throughout the Solar System, occurring where volatile materials are lost from a regolith. Such mass wasting has been observed on Mars, Io, Triton, and possibly Europa and Ganymede. [14] Mass wasting also occurs in the equatorial regions of Mars, where stopes of soft sulfate-rich sediments are steepened by wind erosion. [15] Mass wasting on Venus is associated with the rugged terrain of tesserae. [16] Io shows extensive mass wasting of its volcanic mountains. [17]

Deposits and landforms

Mass wasting affects geomorphology, most often in subtle, small-scale ways, but occasionally more spectacularly. [18]

Soil creep is rarely apparent but can produce such subtle effects as curved forest growth and tilted fences and telephone poles. It occasionally produces low scarps and shallow depressions. [19] Solifluction produced lobed or sheetlike deposits, with fairly definite edges, in which clasts (rock fragments) are oriented perpendicular to the contours of the deposit. [20]

Rockfall can produce talus slopes at the feet of cliffs. A more dramatic manifestation of rockfall is rock glaciers, which form from rockfall from cliffs oversteepened by glaciers. [19]

Landslides can produce scarps and step-like small terraces. [21] Landslide deposits are poorly sorted. Those rich in clay may show stretched clay lumps (a phenomenon called boudinage) and zones of concentrated shear. [20]

Debris flow deposits take the form of long, narrow tracks of very poorly sorted material. These may have natural levees at the sides of the tracks, and sometimes consist of lenses of rock fragments alternating with lenses of fine-grained earthy material. [20] Debris flows often form much of the upper slopes of alluvial fans. [22]

Causes

Triggers for mass wasting can be divided into passive and activating (initiating) causes. Passive causes include: [23]

Activating causes include: [23]

Hazards and mitigation

Mass wasting causes problems for civil engineering, particularly highway construction. It can displace roads, buildings, and other construction and can break pipelines. Historically, mitigation of landslide hazards on the Gaillard Cut of the Panama Canal accounted for 55,860,400 cubic meters (73,062,600 cu yd) of the 128,648,530 cubic meters (168,265,924 cu yd) of material removed while excavating the cut. [25]

Rockslides or landslides can have disastrous consequences, both immediate and delayed. The Oso disaster of March 2014 was a landslide that caused 43 fatalities in Oso, Washington, US. [26] Delayed consequences of landslides can arise from the formation of landslide dams, as at Thistle, Utah in April 1983. [27] [28]

Volcano flanks can become over-steep resulting in instability and mass wasting. This is now a recognised part of the growth of all active volcanoes. [29] It is seen on submarine volcanoes as well as surface volcanoes: [30] Kamaʻehuakanaloa (formerly Loihi) in the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain [31] and Kick 'em Jenny in the Lesser Antilles Volcanic Arc [32] are two submarine volcanoes that are known to undergo mass wasting. The failure of the northern flank of Mount St. Helens in 1980 showed how rapidly volcanic flanks can deform and fail. [33]

Methods of mitigation of mass wasting hazards include:

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Erosion</span> Natural processes that remove soil and rock

Erosion is the action of surface processes that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust and then transports it to another location where it is deposited. Erosion is distinct from weathering which involves no movement. Removal of rock or soil as clastic sediment is referred to as physical or mechanical erosion; this contrasts with chemical erosion, where soil or rock material is removed from an area by dissolution. Eroded sediment or solutes may be transported just a few millimetres, or for thousands of kilometres.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Landslide</span> Natural hazard involving ground movement

Landslides, also known as landslips, are several forms of mass wasting that may include a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, mudflows, shallow or deep-seated slope failures and debris flows. Landslides occur in a variety of environments, characterized by either steep or gentle slope gradients, from mountain ranges to coastal cliffs or even underwater, in which case they are called submarine landslides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geomorphology</span> Scientific study of landforms

Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features generated by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near Earth's surface. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform and terrain history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments and numerical modeling. Geomorphologists work within disciplines such as physical geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology, climatology, and geotechnical engineering. This broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slump (geology)</span> Short distance movement of coherent earth down a slope

A slump is a form of mass wasting that occurs when a coherent mass of loosely consolidated materials or a rock layer moves a short distance down a slope. Movement is characterized by sliding along a concave-upward or planar surface. Causes of slumping include earthquake shocks, thorough wetting, freezing and thawing, undercutting, and loading of a slope.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aeolian processes</span> Processes due to wind activity

Aeolian processes, also spelled eolian, pertain to wind activity in the study of geology and weather and specifically to the wind's ability to shape the surface of the Earth. Winds may erode, transport, and deposit materials and are effective agents in regions with sparse vegetation, a lack of soil moisture and a large supply of unconsolidated sediments. Although water is a much more powerful eroding force than wind, aeolian processes are important in arid environments such as deserts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scree</span> Broken rock fragments at base of cliff

Scree is a collection of broken rock fragments at the base of a cliff or other steep rocky mass that has accumulated through periodic rockfall. Landforms associated with these materials are often called talus deposits. Talus deposits typically have a concave upwards form, where the maximum inclination corresponds to the angle of repose of the mean debris particle size. The exact definition of scree in the primary literature is somewhat relaxed, and it often overlaps with both talus and colluvium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geological hazard</span> Geological state that may lead to widespread damage or risk

A geologic hazard or geohazard is an adverse geologic condition capable of causing widespread damage or loss of property and life. These hazards are geological and environmental conditions and involve long-term or short-term geological processes. Geohazards can be relatively small features, but they can also attain huge dimensions and affect local and regional socio-economics to a large extent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slope stability</span> Stability of soil or rock slopes

Slope stability refers to the condition of inclined soil or rock slopes to withstand or undergo movement; the opposite condition is called slope instability or slope failure. The stability condition of slopes is a subject of study and research in soil mechanics, geotechnical engineering and engineering geology. Analyses are generally aimed at understanding the causes of an occurred slope failure, or the factors that can potentially trigger a slope movement, resulting in a landslide, as well as at preventing the initiation of such movement, slowing it down or arresting it through mitigation countermeasures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Submarine canyon</span> Steep-sided valley cut into the seabed of the continental slope

A submarine canyon is a steep-sided valley cut into the seabed of the continental slope, sometimes extending well onto the continental shelf, having nearly vertical walls, and occasionally having canyon wall heights of up to 5 km (3 mi), from canyon floor to canyon rim, as with the Great Bahama Canyon. Just as above-sea-level canyons serve as channels for the flow of water across land, submarine canyons serve as channels for the flow of turbidity currents across the seafloor. Turbidity currents are flows of dense, sediment laden waters that are supplied by rivers, or generated on the seabed by storms, submarine landslides, earthquakes, and other soil disturbances. Turbidity currents travel down slope at great speed, eroding the continental slope and finally depositing sediment onto the abyssal plain, where the particles settle out.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solifluction</span> Freeze-thaw mass wasting slope processes

Solifluction is a collective name for gradual processes in which a mass moves down a slope related to freeze-thaw activity. This is the standard modern meaning of solifluction, which differs from the original meaning given to it by Johan Gunnar Andersson in 1906.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rockfall</span> Rocks fallen freely from a cliff, roof, or quarry

A rockfall or rock-fall is a quantity/sheets of rock that has fallen freely from a cliff face. The term is also used for collapse of rock from roof or walls of mine or quarry workings. "A rockfall is a fragment of rock detached by sliding, toppling, or falling, that falls along a vertical or sub-vertical cliff, proceeds down slope by bouncing and flying along ballistic trajectories or by rolling on talus or debris slopes."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rockslide</span> Type of landslide caused by rock failure

A rockslide is a type of landslide caused by rock failure in which part of the bedding plane of failure passes through compacted rock and material collapses en masse and not in individual blocks. Note that a rockslide is similar to an avalanche because they are both slides of debris that can bury a piece of land. While a landslide occurs when loose dirt or sediment falls down a slope, a rockslide occurs only when solid rocks are transported down slope. The rocks tumble downhill, loosening other rocks on their way and smashing everything in their path. Fast-flowing rock slides or debris slides behave similarly to snow avalanches, and are often referred to as rock avalanches or debris avalanches.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hilina Slump</span> Subsided section of the Big Island of Hawaii

The Hilina Slump, on the south flank of the Kīlauea Volcano on the southeast coast of the Big Island of Hawaiʻi, is the most notable of several landslides that ring each of the Hawaiian Islands. These landslides are the means by which material deposited at a volcano's vents are transferred downward and seaward, eventually spilling onto the seabed to broaden the island.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mudflow</span> Form of mass wasting

A mudflow, also known as mudslide or mud flow, is a form of mass wasting involving fast-moving flow of debris and dirt that has become liquified by the addition of water. Such flows can move at speeds ranging from 3 meters/minute to 5 meters/second. Mudflows contain a significant proportion of clay, which makes them more fluid than debris flows, allowing them to travel farther and across lower slope angles. Both types of flow are generally mixtures of particles with a wide range of sizes, which typically become sorted by size upon deposition.

The Hawaiian Trough, otherwise known as the Hawaiian Deep, is a moat-like depression of the seafloor surrounding the Hawaiian Islands. The weight from the volcanic island chain depresses the plastic lithosphere that is already weakened by the underlying thermal hotspot, causing subsidence to occur. The location with the greatest rate of subsidence is directly above the hotspot with a rate of about 0.1 inches per year. The Hawaiian Trough is about 18,045 feet deep and has a radius of about 8.7 miles (14.0 km). The subsiding lithosphere is balanced out and through the concept of isostasy a part of the crust surrounding the trough is levered upwards creating the Hawaiian Arch. The Hawaiian Arch extends about 656 feet above the surrounding ocean floor, and contains tilted coral reefs.

There have been known various classifications of landslides. Broad definitions include forms of mass movement that narrower definitions exclude. For example, the McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology distinguishes the following types of landslides:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Submarine landslide</span> Landslides that transport sediment across the continental shelf and into the deep ocean

Submarine landslides are marine landslides that transport sediment across the continental shelf and into the deep ocean. A submarine landslide is initiated when the downwards driving stress exceeds the resisting stress of the seafloor slope material, causing movements along one or more concave to planar rupture surfaces. Submarine landslides take place in a variety of different settings, including planes as low as 1°, and can cause significant damage to both life and property. Recent advances have been made in understanding the nature and processes of submarine landslides through the use of sidescan sonar and other seafloor mapping technology.

Mountains are widely distributed across the surface of Io, the innermost large moon of Jupiter. There are about 115 named mountains; the average length is 157 km (98 mi) and the average height is 6,300 m (20,700 ft). The longest is 570 km (350 mi), and the highest is Boösaule Montes, at 17,500 metres (57,400 ft), taller than any mountain on Earth. Ionian mountains often appear as large, isolated structures; no global tectonic pattern is evident, unlike on Earth, where plate tectonics is dominant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Periglaciation</span> Natural processes associated with freezing and thawing in regions close to glaciers

Periglaciation describes geomorphic processes that result from seasonal thawing and freezing, very often in areas of permafrost. The meltwater may refreeze in ice wedges and other structures. "Periglacial" originally suggested an environment located on the margin of past glaciers. However, freeze and thaw cycles influence landscapes also outside areas of past glaciation. Therefore, periglacial environments are anywhere when freezing and thawing modify the landscape in a significant manner.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanic landslide</span> Mass movement that occurs at volcanoes

A volcanic landslide or volcanogenic landslide is a type of mass wasting that takes place at volcanoes.

References

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  2. 1 2 Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "Mass wasting". Glossary of geology (Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. ISBN   0922152349.
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  5. ↑ Britannica
  6. ↑ Jackson 1997, "subsidence".
  7. ↑ Fleming, Robert W.; Varnes, David J. (1991). "Slope movements". The Heritage of Engineering Geology; the First Hundred Years: 201–218. doi:10.1130/DNAG-CENT-v3.201. ISBN   0813753031.
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