Addictive personality

Last updated

An addictive personality refers to a hypothesized set of personality traits that make an individual predisposed to developing addictions. This hypothesis states that there may be common personality traits observable in people suffering from addiction; however, the lack of a universally agreed upon definition has marked the research surrounding addictive personality. Addiction is a fairly broad term; it is most often associated with substance use disorders, but it can also be extended to cover a number of other compulsive behaviors, including sex, internet, television, gambling, food, and shopping. Within these categories of addiction a common diagnostic scale involves tolerance, withdrawal, and cravings. [1] This is a fairly contentious topic, with many experts suggesting the term be retired due to a lack of cumulative evidence supporting the existence of addictive personality. [2] It has been claimed that characteristics of personality attributed to addictive personality do not predict addiction, but rather can be the result of addiction. [3] However, different personality traits have been linked to various types of addictive behaviors, suggesting that individual addictions may be associated with different personality profiles. [4] The strongest consensus is that genetic factors play the largest role in determining a predisposition for addictive behaviors. [5] Even then, however, genes play different roles in different types of addictions. Forty to seventy percent of the population variance in the expression of addictions can be explained by genetic factors. [6]

Contents

Etiology

The following factors are believed to influence addiction susceptibility.

Psychological factors

Some claim the existence of "addictive beliefs" in people more likely to develop addictions, such as "I cannot make an impact on my world" or "I am not good enough", which may lead to developing traits associated with addiction, such as depression and emotional insecurity. [9] People who strongly believe that they control their own lives and are mostly self-reliant in learning information (rather than relying on others) are less likely to become addicted. [10] However, it is unclear whether these traits are causes, results or merely associated coincidentally. For example, depression due to physical disease [11] can cause feelings of hopelessness that are mitigated after successful treatment of the underlying condition, and addiction can increase dependence on others. Certain psychological disorders such as panic attacks, depressive disorders, and generalized anxiety disorder have been related to addiction. The addicted person, who struggles with reality and feels negative feelings, such as anxiety and depression, will seek out ways to help them avoid such feelings. [1]

Food addiction

Overeating due to food addiction has not yet been recognized as a medical disorder under the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders despite its prevalence in the general population. A study based on social cognitive theories, included a personality-targeted intervention that was shown to help treat substance addiction. It is feasible that by changing certain elements of one's personality, one can gain a step in the right direction towards changing their addictive personality. [12]

Genetic factors

According to David Goldman, a prominent alcoholism researcher, [13] addiction is one of the behavioral disorders most strongly correlated with genetic makeup. [14] Individual traits can share common underlying factors or interact. For example, depression, poor self-control, and compulsive behavior are linked to neurotransmitter abnormalities, i.e., biological mechanisms. [15] In laboratory studies with rats, only some rats develop a pattern of self-administration of stimulant drugs, supporting the existence of some inherent propensity for addictive tendencies. In these rats, a positive correlation was found between locomotor response to novel stimuli and the amount of amphetamine self-administered during the first few days of testing. [16] Twin and adoption studies have shown genetic factors account for 50–60% of the risk for alcoholism. In early adolescence, social and familial factors play a more important role in the initiation of drug use, but their importance fades with progression into adulthood. [17] The gene CHRNA5 has been heavily linked to the addictions of cigarettes. Researchers discovered that the CHRNA5 variant creates a less nauseating experience for a first time smoker. The gene is active in the region of the brain called the habenula. Research showed that frequent smoking might damage the neurons within the habenula that inhibit its role in aversion and avoidance, which might cause the smoker to then use more nicotine to feel relief from resulting distressful and negative feelings. [18]

Environmental factors

Studies have found numerous environmental factors that correlate with addiction. Exposure to sustained stress in childhood, such as physical or sexual abuse, especially accompanied by unpredictable parental behavior strongly correlates with drug addiction and overeating in adulthood. [19] Children who tend to react to distress in a more rash way have been linked to becoming more likely to drink and smoke in their adolescence. Results from this research found that this was because the reaction to distress affected psychosocial learning, which led to increased expectancy to drink or smoke. [20] A lack of social interaction has also been shown to correlate with addictive tendencies; rats reared in isolation were quicker to develop a pattern of cocaine self-administration than rats reared in groups. [16] There is a gene/environment connection in that individuals with particular personality traits may self-select into different environments, e.g., they may seek out work environments where addictive substances are more readily available. [21]

Description

Addiction can be defined as an excessive amount of time and resources spent in engaging in an activity or an experience that somehow affects the person's quality of life. [22] An addictive personality is when those addictive behaviors progress and change as the individual seeks to produce the desired mood. [23]

People that face this issue are currently defined to have a brain disease as promoted by the National Institute on Drug Abuse and other authorities. [24] People who experience addictive personality disorders typically act on impulses and cannot deal with delayed gratification. [25] At the same time, people with this type of personality tend to believe that they do not fit into societal norms and therefore, acting on impulses, deviate from conformity to rebel. [26] People with addictive personalities are very sensitive to emotional stress. They have trouble handling situations that they deem frustrating, even if the event is for a very short duration. The combination of low self-esteem, impulsivity and low tolerance for stress causes these individuals to have frequent mood swings and often suffer from some sort of depression. [25] A coping mechanism to deal with their conflicting personality becomes their addiction and the addiction acts as something that the person can control when they find it difficult to control their personality traits. [25]

People with addictive personalities typically switch from one addiction to the next. [3] These individuals may show impulsive behavior such as excessive caffeine consumption, Internet use, eating chocolate or other sugar-laden foods, television watching, or even running. [27]

Extraversion, self-monitoring, and loneliness are also common characteristics found in those who suffer from addiction. [28] [29] Individuals who score high on self-monitoring are more prone to developing an addiction. [28] [29] High self-monitors are sensitive to social situations; [28] [29] they act how they think others expect them to act. They wish to fit in, hence they are very easily influenced by others. Likewise, those who have low self-esteem also seek peer approval; therefore, they participate in "attractive" activities such as smoking or drinking to try to fit in. [28] [29]

People with addictive personalities find it difficult to manage their stress levels. In fact, lack of stress tolerance is a telltale sign of the disorder. [25] They find it difficult to face stressful situations and fight hard to get out of such conditions. Long-term goals prove difficult to achieve because people with addictive personalities usually focus on the stress that comes with getting through the short-term goals. [25] Such personalities will often switch to other enjoyable activities the moment that they are deprived of enjoyment in their previous addiction. [25]

Addictive individuals feel highly insecure when it comes to relationships. They may often find it difficult to make commitments in relationships or trust their beloved because of the difficulty they find in achieving long-term goals. [27] They constantly seek approval of others and as a result, these misunderstandings may contribute to the destruction of relationships. People suffering from addictive personality disorder usually undergo depression and anxiety, managing their emotions by developing addiction to alcohol, other types of drugs, or other pleasurable activities. [27]

An addict is more prone to depression, anxiety, and anger. [29] Both the addict's environment, genetics and biological tendency contribute to their addiction. [29] People with very severe personality disorders are more likely to become addicts. Addictive substances usually stop primary and secondary neuroses, meaning people with personality disorders like the relief from their pain. [29]

Personality traits and addiction

Addiction is defined by scholars as "a biopsychosocial disorder characterized by persistent use of drugs (including alcohol) despite substantial harm and adverse consequences". [30] Substance-based addictions are those based upon the release of dopamine in the brain, upon which the range of sensations produced by the euphoric event in the brain changes the brain's immediate behavior, causing more susceptibility for future addictions. Behavior-based addictions, on the other hand, are those that are not linked to neurological behavior as much and are thus thought to be linked to personality traits; it is this type of addiction that combines a behavior with a mental state and the repeated routine is therefore associated with the mental state. [31]

Drug addiction

A group of British forensic psychologists and data scientists analysed a new large database of users of psychoactive substances. [32] To analyse the predisposition to drug use, they utilized 7 psychological traits, the Five Factor Model supplemented by Impulsivity and Sensation seeking:

These factors are not statistically independent but the condition number of the correlation matrix is less than 10 and the multicollinearity effects are not expected to be strong. [32]

The results of the detailed analysis of modern data support partially the hypothesis about psychological predisposition to addiction. The group of users of illicit drugs differs from the group of non-users for N, O, A, C, Imp, and SS. Symbolically, this difference can be illustrated as follows:

(N, O, Imp, and SS scores are higher for users; A and C scores are lower for users).

The hypothesis about importance of E for addiction was not supported by this aggregated analysis of use of all illicit drugs.

Analysis of consumption of different drugs separately demonstrated that predisposition to use of different drugs is different. For all illicit drugs groups of their users have the following common properties:

(O, Imp, and SS scores are higher for users and C score is lower for users).

Deviation of N, E, and A scores for users of different drugs can be different. For example, heroin users have average profile

whereas for LSD and Ecstasy (the latter being a so-called "Party drug") users N has no significant deviation from the population level and E can be higher. [32]

Several personality profiles of risky behaviour were identified by various researchers, for example (Insecures) and (Impulsives, Hedonists). [34] Various types of addictive personality have in common low C.

Internet addiction

Internet addiction is associated with higher scores in neuroticism and lower scores in extraversion and conscientiousness. [35] One explanation for the association with high neuroticism is that virtual environments may be regarded as more safe and comfortable by individuals with lower self-esteem and increased negative emotion (traits associated with high neuroticism) compared to real-life environments. Similarly, individuals with low extraversion that desire social interaction but are averse to face-to-face interaction may find the opportunity for online communication attractive. [35]

Personality theories of addiction

This section is an excerpt from Personality theories of addiction.[ edit ]
Personality theories of addiction are psychological models that associate personality traits or modes of thinking (i.e., affective states) with an individual's proclivity for developing an addiction. Models of addiction risk that have been proposed in psychology literature include an affect dysregulation model of positive and negative psychological affects, the reinforcement sensitivity theory model of impulsiveness and behavioral inhibition, and an impulsivity model of reward sensitization and impulsiveness. [36] [40] [41]

Controversy

There is an ongoing debate about the question of whether an addictive personality really exists. The assumption that personality might be to blame for an addicted person, who is in need of rehabilitation due to drug and alcohol addictions, can have great negative impacts from its supporting a homogeneous answer to a heterogeneous issue in question. These people run the risk of being labeled as stigmas and become incorrectly marginalized, and these misjudgments of personality may then lead to poor mental, medical, and social health practices. [22] There are two sides of this argument, each with many levels and variations. One side believes that there are certain traits and dimensions of personality that, if existent in a person, cause the person to be more prone to developing addictions throughout their life. The other side argues that addiction is in chemistry, as in how the brain's synapses respond to neurotransmitters and is therefore not affected by personality. A major argument in favor of defining and labeling an addictive personality has to do with the human ability to make decisions and the notion of free will. [42] This argument suggests human beings are aware of their actions and what the consequences of their own actions are and many choose against certain things because of this. This can be seen in that people are not forced to drink excessively or smoke every day, but it is within the reach of their own free will that some may choose to do so. [42] Therefore, those with addictive personalities are high in neuroticism and hence choose to engage in riskier behaviors. The theory of addictive personalities agrees that there are two types of people: risk-takers and risk-averse. Risk-takers enjoy challenges, new experiences and want instant gratification. These people enjoy the excitement of danger and trying new things. [42] On the other hand, risk-averse are those who are by nature cautious in what they do and the activities they involve themselves in. [42] It is the personality traits of individuals that combine to create either a risk-taker or risk-averse person.

Another important concern is the lack of evidence supporting the addictive personality label and the possibility of stigma. [2] While there is a medical consensus surrounding the genetic components of addiction, [5] there is no such consensus supporting the idea that specific personality types have a tendency towards addictive behaviors. [2] In fact, continued use of this term in the absence of clear evidence could be damaging to the people who believe they have an addictive personality. [2]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Substance abuse</span> Harmful use of drugs

Substance abuse, also known as drug abuse, is the use of a drug in amounts or by methods that are harmful to the individual or others. It is a form of substance-related disorder. Differing definitions of drug abuse are used in public health, medical, and criminal justice contexts. In some cases, criminal or anti-social behavior occurs when the person is under the influence of a drug, and long-term personality changes in individuals may also occur. In addition to possible physical, social, and psychological harm, the use of some drugs may also lead to criminal penalties, although these vary widely depending on the local jurisdiction.

Antisocial personality disorder is a personality disorder characterized by a limited capacity for empathy and a long-term pattern of disregard or violation of the rights of others. Other notable symptoms include impulsivity and reckless behavior, a lack of remorse after hurting others, deceitfulness, irresponsibility, and aggressive behavior.

Drug rehabilitation is the process of medical or psychotherapeutic treatment for dependency on psychoactive substances such as alcohol, prescription drugs, and street drugs such as cannabis, cocaine, heroin or amphetamines. The general intent is to enable the patient to confront substance dependence, if present, and stop substance misuse to avoid the psychological, legal, financial, social, and physical consequences that can be caused.

Self-medication is a human behavior in which an individual uses a substance or any exogenous influence to self-administer treatment for physical or psychological conditions: for example headaches or fatigue.

A food addiction or eating addiction is any behavioral addiction that is primarily characterized by the compulsive consumption of palatable food items which markedly activate the reward system in humans and other animals despite adverse consequences.

Substance dependence, also known as drug dependence, is a biopsychological situation whereby an individual's functionality is dependent on the necessitated re-consumption of a psychoactive substance because of an adaptive state that has developed within the individual from psychoactive substance consumption that results in the experience of withdrawal and that necessitates the re-consumption of the drug. A drug addiction, a distinct concept from substance dependence, is defined as compulsive, out-of-control drug use, despite negative consequences. An addictive drug is a drug which is both rewarding and reinforcing. ΔFosB, a gene transcription factor, is now known to be a critical component and common factor in the development of virtually all forms of behavioral and drug addictions, but not dependence.

An addictive behavior is a behavior, or a stimulus related to a behavior, that is both rewarding and reinforcing, and is associated with the development of an addiction. There are two main forms of addiction: substance use disorders and behavioral addiction. The parallels and distinctions between behavioral addictions and other compulsive behavior disorders like bulimia nervosa and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) are still being researched by behavioral scientists.

In the study of psychology, neuroticism has been considered a fundamental personality trait. In the Big Five approach to personality trait theory, individuals with high scores for neuroticism are more likely than average to be moody and to experience such feelings as anxiety, worry, fear, anger, frustration, envy, jealousy, pessimism, guilt, depressed mood, and loneliness. Such people are thought to respond worse to stressors and are more likely to interpret ordinary situations, such as minor frustrations, as appearing hopelessly difficult. The responses can include maladaptive behaviors, such as dissociation, procrastination, substance use, etc., which aids in relieving the negative emotions and generating positive ones.

Dual diagnosis is the condition of having a mental illness and a comorbid substance use disorder. There is considerable debate surrounding the appropriateness of using a single category for a heterogeneous group of individuals with complex needs and a varied range of problems. The concept can be used broadly, for example depression and alcohol use disorder, or it can be restricted to specify severe mental illness and substance use disorder, or a person who has a milder mental illness and a drug dependency, such as panic disorder or generalized anxiety disorder and is dependent on opioids. Diagnosing a primary psychiatric illness in people who use substances is challenging as substance use disorder itself often induces psychiatric symptoms, thus making it necessary to differentiate between substance induced and pre-existing mental illness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Impulsivity</span> Tendency to act on a whim without considering consequences

In psychology, impulsivity is a tendency to act on a whim, displaying behavior characterized by little or no forethought, reflection, or consideration of the consequences. Impulsive actions are typically "poorly conceived, prematurely expressed, unduly risky, or inappropriate to the situation that often result in undesirable consequences," which imperil long-term goals and strategies for success. Impulsivity can be classified as a multifactorial construct. A functional variety of impulsivity has also been suggested, which involves action without much forethought in appropriate situations that can and does result in desirable consequences. "When such actions have positive outcomes, they tend not to be seen as signs of impulsivity, but as indicators of boldness, quickness, spontaneity, courageousness, or unconventionality." Thus, the construct of impulsivity includes at least two independent components: first, acting without an appropriate amount of deliberation, which may or may not be functional; and second, choosing short-term gains over long-term ones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Internet addiction disorder</span> Excessive internet use that causes psychological disorders

Internet addiction disorder (IAD) can otherwise be referred to as problematic internet use or pathological internet use. It is generally defined as problematic, compulsive use of the internet, that results in significant impairment in an individual's function in various aspects of life over a prolonged period of time. Young people are at particular risk of developing internet addiction disorder, with case studies highlighting students whose academic performance plummets as they spend more and more time online. Some also experience health consequences from loss of sleep, as they stay up later and later to chat online, check for social network status updates or to further progress in a game.

In psychology, novelty seeking (NS) is a personality trait associated with exploratory activity in response to novel stimulation, impulsive decision making, extravagance in approach to reward cues, quick loss of temper, and avoidance of frustration. That is, Novelty seeking refers to the tendency to pursue new experiences with intense emotional sensations. It is a multifaceted behavioral construct that includes thrill seeking, novelty preference, risk taking, harm avoidance, and reward dependence. The novelty-seeking trait is considered a heritable tendency of individuals to take risks for the purpose of achieving stimulation and seeking new environments and situations that make their experiences more intense. This trait has been associated with the level of motive and excitement in response to novelty. Persons with high levels of novelty seeking have been described as more impulsive and disorderly than low novelty seekers and have a higher propensity to get involved in risky activities, such as starting to misuse drugs, engaging in risky sexual activities, and suffering accidental injuries. It is measured in the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire as well as the later version Temperament and Character Inventory and is considered one of the temperament dimensions of personality. Like the other temperament dimensions, it has been found to be highly heritable. Another related term, Variety seeking or variety-seeking buying behavior describes a consumer's desire to search for alternative products even if she or he is satisfied with a current product. For example, someone may drink tea with lunch one day but choose orange juice the next day specifically to get something different. High NS has been suggested to be related to low dopaminergic activity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reward dependence</span>

Reward dependence is characterized as a tendency to respond markedly to signals of reward, particularly to verbal signals of social approval, social support, and sentiment. When reward dependence levels deviate from normal we see the rise of several personality and addictive disorders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Substance use disorder</span> Continual use of drugs (including alcohol) despite detrimental consequences

Substance use disorder (SUD) is the persistent use of drugs despite substantial harm and adverse consequences as a result of their use. The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) states that "Substance use disorder (SUD) is a treatable mental disorder that affects a person's brain and behavior, leading to their inability to control their use of substances like legal or illegal drugs, alcohol, or medications. Symptoms can be moderate to severe, with addiction being the most severe form of SUD". Substance use disorders (SUD) are considered to be a serious mental illness that fluctuates with the age that symptoms first start appearing in an individual, the time during which it exists and the type of substance that is used. It is not uncommon for those who have SUD to also have other mental health disorders. Substance use disorders are characterized by an array of mental/emotional, physical, and behavioral problems such as chronic guilt; an inability to reduce or stop consuming the substance(s) despite repeated attempts; operating vehicles while intoxicated; and physiological withdrawal symptoms. Drug classes that are commonly involved in SUD include: alcohol (alcoholism); cannabis; opioids; stimulants such as nicotine, cocaine and amphetamines; benzodiazepines; barbiturates; and other or unknown substances.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Addiction</span> Disorder resulting in compulsive behaviours

Addiction is a neuropsychological disorder characterized by a persistent and intense urge to use a drug or engage in a behaviour that produces natural reward, despite substantial harm and other negative consequences. Repetitive drug use often alters brain function in ways that perpetuate craving, and weakens self-control. This phenomenon – drugs reshaping brain function – has led to an understanding of addiction as a brain disorder with a complex variety of psychosocial as well as neurobiological factors that are implicated in addiction's development. Classic signs of addiction include compulsive engagement in rewarding stimuli, preoccupation with substances or behavior, and continued use despite negative consequences. Habits and patterns associated with addiction are typically characterized by immediate gratification, coupled with delayed deleterious effects.

Reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) proposes three brain-behavioral systems that underlie individual differences in sensitivity to reward, punishment, and motivation. While not originally defined as a theory of personality, the RST has been used to study and predict anxiety, impulsivity, and extraversion. The theory evolved from Gray's biopsychological theory of personality to incorporate findings from a number of areas in psychology and neuroscience, culminating in a major revision in 2000. The revised theory distinguishes between fear and anxiety and proposes functionally related subsystems. Measures of RST have not been widely adapted to reflect the revised theory due to disagreement over related versus independent subsystems. Despite this controversy, RST informed the study of anxiety disorders in clinical settings and continues to be used today to study and predict work performance. RST, built upon Gray's behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral activation system (BAS) understanding, also may help to suggest predispositions to and predict alcohol and drug abuse. RST, a continuously evolving paradigm, is the subject of multiple areas of contemporary psychological enquiry.

Exercise addiction is a state characterized by a compulsive engagement in any form of physical exercise, despite negative consequences. While regular exercise is generally a healthy activity, exercise addiction generally involves performing excessive amounts of exercise to the detriment of physical health, spending too much time exercising to the detriment of personal and professional life, and exercising regardless of physical injury. It may also involve a state of dependence upon regular exercise which involves the occurrence of severe withdrawal symptoms when the individual is unable to exercise. Differentiating between addictive and healthy exercise behaviors is difficult but there are key factors in determining which category a person may fall into. Exercise addiction shows a high comorbidity with eating disorders.

About 1 in 7 Americans suffer from active addiction to a particular substance. Addiction can cause physical, psychological, and emotional harm to those who are affected by it. The American Society of Addiction Medicine defines addiction as "a treatable, chronic medical disease involving complex interactions among brain circuits, genetics, the environment, and an individual's life experiences. People with addiction use substances or engage in behaviors that become compulsive and often continue despite harmful consequences." In the world of psychology and medicine, there are two models that are commonly used in understanding the psychology behind addiction itself. One model is referred to as the disease model of addiction. The disease model suggests that addiction is a diagnosable disease similar to cancer or diabetes. This model attributes addiction to a chemical imbalance in an individual's brain that could be caused by genetics or environmental factors. The second model is the choice model of addiction, which holds that addiction is a result of voluntary actions rather than some dysfunction of the brain. Through this model, addiction is viewed as a choice and is studied through components of the brain such as reward, stress, and memory. Substance addictions relate to drugs, alcohol, and smoking. Process addictions relate to non-substance-related behaviors such as gambling, spending money, sexual activity, gaming, spending time on the internet, and eating.

Addiction vulnerability is an individual's risk of developing an addiction during their lifetime. There are a range of genetic and environmental risk factors for developing an addiction that vary across the population. Genetic and environmental risk factors each account for roughly half of an individual's risk for developing an addiction; the contribution from epigenetic risk factors to the total risk is unknown. Even in individuals with a relatively low genetic risk, exposure to sufficiently high doses of an addictive drug for a long period of time can result in an addiction. In other words, anyone can become an individual with a substance use disorder under particular circumstances. Research is working toward establishing a comprehensive picture of the neurobiology of addiction vulnerability, including all factors at work in propensity for addiction.

Personality theories of addiction are psychological models that associate personality traits or modes of thinking with an individual's proclivity for developing an addiction. Models of addiction risk that have been proposed in psychology literature include an affect dysregulation model of positive and negative psychological affects, the reinforcement sensitivity theory model of impulsiveness and behavioral inhibition, and an impulsivity model of reward sensitization and impulsiveness.

References

  1. 1 2 Müller, K. W.; Koch, A.; Dickenhorst, U.; Beutel, M. E.; Duven, E.; Wölfling, K. (2013-06-25). "Addressing the Question of Disorder-Specific Risk Factors of Internet Addiction: A Comparison of Personality Traits in Patients with Addictive Behaviors and Comorbid Internet Addiction". BioMed Research International. 2013: 546342. doi: 10.1155/2013/546342 . PMC   3707207 . PMID   23865056.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Amodeo, Maryann (2015-07-29). "The Addictive Personality". Substance Use & Misuse. 50 (8–9): 1031–1036. doi:10.3109/10826084.2015.1007646. ISSN   1082-6084. PMID   25774829. S2CID   34410969.
  3. 1 2 Amodeo, Maryann (2015-07-29). "The Addictive Personality". Substance Use & Misuse. 50 (8–9): 1031–1036. doi:10.3109/10826084.2015.1007646. ISSN   1082-6084. PMID   25774829. S2CID   34410969.
  4. ↑ Zilberman, Noam; Yadid, Gal; Efrati, Yaniv; Neumark, Yehuda; Rassovsky, Yuri (2018-07-01). "Personality profiles of substance and behavioral addictions". Addictive Behaviors. 82: 174–181. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.03.007. ISSN   0306-4603. PMID   29547799. S2CID   4539948.
  5. 1 2 Uhl, George R.; Drgon, Tomas; Johnson, Catherine; Li, Chuan-Yun; Contoreggi, Carlo; Hess, Judith; Naiman, Daniel; Liu, Qing-Rong (October 2008). "Molecular Genetics of Addiction and Related Heritable Phenotypes". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1141 (1): 318–381. Bibcode:2008NYASA1141..318U. doi:10.1196/annals.1441.018. PMC   3922196 . PMID   18991966.
  6. ↑ Ducci, Francesca; Goldman, David (June 2012). "The Genetic Basis of Addictive Disorders". Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 35 (2): 495–519. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2012.03.010. PMC   3506170 . PMID   22640768.
  7. ↑ Franken, Ingmar H.A.; Muris, Peter; Georgieva, Irina (2006). "Gray's model of personality and addiction". Addictive Behaviors. 31 (3): 399–403. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.05.022. PMID   15964149.
  8. ↑ Franken, Ingmar H.A. (2002). "Behavioral approach system (BAS) sensitivity predicts alcohol craving". Personality and Individual Differences. 32 (2): 349–355. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00030-7.
  9. ↑ Washton, Arnold M.; Boundy, Donna (1989). "The Addictive Personality" . Willpower's Not Enough: Understanding and Recovering From Addictions of Every Kind. HarperCollins. pp.  59–. ISBN   978-0-06-015996-2.[ page needed ]
  10. ↑ Cox, W. Miles (1985). "Personality Correlates of Substance Abuse". In Galizio, Mark; Maisto, Stephen (eds.). Determinants of Substance Abuse: Biological, Psychological, and Environmental Factors. Springer. pp.  209–46. ISBN   978-0-306-41873-0.
  11. ↑ Hurley, Katie. "Depression and Related Conditions". PsyCom. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
  12. ↑ Yang, Yive; Chai, Li Kheng; Collins, Rebecca; Leary, Mark; Whatnall, Megan; Burrows, Tracy (December 2020). "Process Evaluation of a Personality Targeted Intervention for Addictive Eating in Australian Adults". Behavioral Sciences. 10 (12): 186. doi: 10.3390/bs10120186 . PMC   7761794 . PMID   33287346.
  13. ↑ "David Goldman, M.D. | National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA)".
  14. ↑ Wallis, Claudia (October 16, 2009). "The genetics of addiction". CNN Money. Fortune. Retrieved 26 November 2012.
  15. ↑ Brewer, Judson A.; Potenza, Marc N. (2008). "The neurobiology and genetics of impulse control disorders: Relationships to drug addictions". Biochemical Pharmacology. 75 (1): 63–75. doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2007.06.043. PMC   2222549 . PMID   17719013.
  16. 1 2 Wetherington, Cora Lee; Falk, John L. (1998). Laboratory behavioral studies of vulnerability to drug abuse. NCADI. OCLC   850188803.
  17. ↑ Buscemi, Loredana; Turchi, Chiara (October 2011). "An overview of the genetic susceptibility to alcoholism". Medicine, Science and the Law. 51 (1_suppl): 2–6. doi:10.1258/msl.2010.010054. ISSN   0025-8024. PMID   22021628. S2CID   45509212.
  18. ↑ Szalavitz, Maia (2015). "Genetics No More Addictive Personality: The role of temperament, Metabolism and Development Make the Inheritance of Addiction a Complex Affair". Nature. 522 (7557): 48–49. doi: 10.1038/522S48a . PMID   26107094. S2CID   4408293.
  19. ↑ Szalavitz, Maia (2011-09-26). "How Childhood Trauma Creates Life-long Adult Addicts". The Fix. Retrieved 26 November 2012.
  20. ↑ D'Agostino, Alexandra R.; Peterson, Sarah J.; Smith, Gregory T. (July 2019). "A risk model for addictive behaviors in adolescents: interactions between personality and learning". Addiction. 114 (7): 1283–1294. doi:10.1111/add.14622. ISSN   0965-2140. PMC   6548603 . PMID   30908768.
  21. ↑ "Personality and Alcohol: Understanding a Complex Relationship". National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. September 20, 2007.
  22. 1 2 Amodeo, Maryann (2015-07-29). "The Addictive Personality". Substance Use & Misuse. 50 (8–9): 1031–1036. doi:10.3109/10826084.2015.1007646. ISSN   1082-6084. PMID   25774829. S2CID   34410969.
  23. ↑ Nakken, Craig (2009-09-29). The Addictive Personality: Understanding the Addictive Process and Compulsive Behavior. Simon and Schuster. ISBN   978-1-59285-802-6.
  24. ↑ Marlatt, G. Alan; Witkiewitz, Katie, eds. (2009). Addictive behaviors: New readings on etiology, prevention, and treatment. Washington: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/11855-000. ISBN   978-1-4338-0402-1.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kreek, Mary Jeanne; Nielsen, David A; Butelman, Eduardo R; LaForge, K Steven (November 2005). "Genetic influences on impulsivity, risk taking, stress responsivity and vulnerability to drug abuse and addiction". Nature Neuroscience. 8 (11): 1450–1457. doi:10.1038/nn1583. ISSN   1097-6256. PMID   16251987. S2CID   12589277.
  26. ↑ Spinella, Marcello (January 2005). "Compulsive behavior in tobacco users". Addictive Behaviors. 30 (1): 183–186. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.04.011. ISSN   0306-4603. PMID   15561459.
  27. 1 2 3 Lang, Alan R. (1983). "Addictive Personality: A Viable Construct?". In Levison, Peter K.; Gerstein, Dean R.; Maloff, Deborah R. (eds.). Commonalities in Substance Abuse and Habitual Behavior. Lexington Books. pp.  157–236. ISBN   978-0-669-06293-9.
  28. 1 2 3 4 Takao, Motoharu; Takahashi, Susumu; Kitamura, Masayoshi (2009). "Addictive Personality and Problematic Mobile Phone Use". CyberPsychology & Behavior. 12 (5): 501–7. doi:10.1089/cpb.2009.0022. PMID   19817562.
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ellis, Albert (1998). "Addictive Behaviors and Personality Disorders". Social Policy. 29 (2): 25–30. Archived from the original on 2018-02-26.
  30. ↑ Volkow, Nora D.; Koob, George F.; McLellan, A. Thomas (2016-01-28). Longo, Dan L. (ed.). "Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model of Addiction". New England Journal of Medicine. 374 (4): 363–371. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1511480. ISSN   0028-4793. PMC   6135257 . PMID   26816013.
  31. ↑ Olsen, Christopher M. (April 1, 2011). "Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions". Neuropharmacology. 61 (7): 1109–1122. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010. PMC   3139704 . PMID   21459101.
  32. 1 2 3 Fehrman, Elaine; Egan, Vincent; Gorban, Alexander N.; Levesley, Jeremy; Mirkes, Evgeny M.; Muhammad, Awaz K. (2019). Personality Traits and Drug Consumption. A Story Told by Data. Springer, Cham. arXiv: 2001.06520 . doi:10.1007/978-3-030-10442-9. ISBN   978-3-030-10441-2. S2CID   151160405.
  33. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Gary R. Vandenbos (2006-07-15). The APA Dictionary of Psychology. Internet Archive. American Psychological Association (APA). pp. 31–32, 218, 359, 471, 622, 646, & 836. ISBN   978-1-59147-380-0.
  34. ↑ Vollrath, Margarete; Torgersen, Svenn (2002). "Who takes health risks? a probe into eight personality types". Personality and Individual Differences. 32 (7): 1185–1197. doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00080-0.
  35. 1 2 Müller, K. W.; Koch, A.; Dickenhorst, U.; Beutel, M. E.; Duven, E.; Wölfling, K. (2013). "Addressing the Question of Disorder-Specific Risk Factors of Internet Addiction: A Comparison of Personality Traits in Patients with Addictive Behaviors and Comorbid Internet Addiction". BioMed Research International. 2013: 546342. doi: 10.1155/2013/546342 . ISSN   2314-6133. PMC   3707207 . PMID   23865056.
  36. ↑ Cheetham A, Allen NB, Yücel M, Lubman DI (August 2010). "The role of affective dysregulation in drug addiction". Clin Psychol Rev. 30 (6): 621–34. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.04.005. PMID   20546986.
  37. ↑ Franken IH, Muris P (2006). "BIS/BAS personality characteristics and college students' substance use". Personality and Individual Differences. 40 (7): 1497–1503. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.12.005.
  38. ↑ Genovese JE, Wallace D (December 2007). "Reward sensitivity and substance abuse in middle school and high school students". J Genet Psychol. 168 (4): 465–9. doi:10.3200/GNTP.168.4.465-469. PMID   18232522. S2CID   207640075.
  39. ↑ Kimbrel NA, Nelson-Gray RO, Mitchell JT (April 2007). "Reinforcement sensitivity and maternal style as predictors of psychopathology". Personality and Individual Differences. 42 (6): 1139–1149. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.06.028.
  40. ↑ [37] [38] [39]
  41. ↑ Dawe S, Loxton NJ (May 2004). "The role of impulsivity in the development of substance use and eating disorders". Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 28 (3): 343–51. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.03.007. PMID   15225976. S2CID   24435589.
  42. 1 2 3 4 Kane, Suzanne (2011-08-10). "Healing the Addictive Personality by Dr. Lee Jampolsky". Addiction Treatment Magazine. Retrieved November 26, 2012.