| Argyrophenga antipodum | |
|---|---|
 | |
Scientific classification  | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Nymphalidae |
| Genus: | Argyrophenga |
| Species: | A. antipodum |
| Binomial name | |
| Argyrophenga antipodum Doubleday, 1845 | |
Argyrophenga antipodum, the common tussock [1] or tussock ringlet, [2] is a species of butterfly commonly found in the South Island of New Zealand.
Argyrophenga antipodum is approximately 12–17 mm long with a wingspan of about 35–45 mm. [3] Male and female common tussock butterflies are quite different in body shape, as females are shorter and have more rounded bodies compared to the males. [4] Common tussock butterflies have very distinct markings on the underside of their wings; [5] they are described as silver streaks and give the butterflies an advantage when it comes to camouflage. [6] The butterfly itself is brown and red, with distinctive eyespots, this is believed to be an evolutionary adaptation to prevent prey from attacking. The sexes are coloured differently with the males being darker in colour and having more red and brown on them and the females are more of a yellow colour, [3] but have very similar patterns or markings on their topside and underside. [4]
The common tussock butterfly is endemic to New Zealand. [2] [4] [7] [1] [8] It can be found in the eastern, southern and central regions of New Zealand's South Island, [1] most abundantly in lowland Canterbury, Otago and Southland. [4] Studies have noted A. antipodum's apparent absence from all other areas of New Zealand despite suitable habitat being available. [1]
The common tussock can be found in a variety of habitats ranging from sea-level saltmarshes and grasslands, to an alpine zone as high as 1950 metres. [1] A. antipodum can be abundant in native and introduced grasslands, both tall and short, as well as various open-country, semi-natural sceneries in New Zealand's South Island. The common tussock is readily seen roadside along old forest sites, and within ungrazed grassland habitats. [4] Furthermore, at sea level, A. antipodum was identified along the Southland coast in mosaic habitats which included areas such as salt marsh, swamp, and tussock grassland.
A new generation of common tussocks is hatched annually, with adult butterflies able to be found from late October to late March. [1]
At the larval stage, common tussock caterpillars are able to camouflage themselves amongst various tall and short grasses which serve as the host plants. This ability to camouflage against host plants continues when A. antipodum develop into pupae, or reach the chrysalis stage of development. [1]
A. antipodum adults are sexually dimorphic and distinctive in behaviour. Male common tussocks are known to fly fast and more frequently, [1] whilst the females are smaller spend more time amongst flowers and grass to lay their eggs. [4]
The flight period of common tussock butterflies extends from November to March, as evidenced in a study of Argyrophenga in central Otago, which revealed an abundance of A. antipodum in various grassland host plants present from late November to late February. [4] It has also been noted that the common tussock's ability to cover relatively large flight distances, an observation made when a marked male was recaptured one week later approximately 1 kilometre away from the location of original capture. [4]
Both male and female common tussocks are known to have a slow, lazy flight pattern which is relatively close to the ground, thus allowing for frequent feeding on various flowers and plants. [1]
At the larval stage, A. antipodum rely on members of the family Poaceae as host plants. Known used genera include Poa , Festuca and Agropyron species. [4] A. antipodum is known to specifically feed on plants such as Chionochloa rubra , meadow grass, Poa poiformis , snow tussock, and wood meadow-grass. [2]
Butterflies such as A. antipodum can be attacked by a number of insect parasites at the larvae and pupae stages of development, [9] although at present there is not a lot of information published specifically on the common tussock's predators. It can be noted, however, that previous studies on the conservation status of various New Zealand butterflies, [10] state that most species considered at risk are not only found in the Canterbury area, but often inhabit areas of short-tussock grasslands much like A. antipodum. Such areas are said to be commonly planted on easily developed land, therefore rendering the area as difficult to protect and maintain in the presence of herbivores and weedy plant species which could possibly take over the intended plant species. Although not a direct predatory threat, this vulnerability of one of the common tussock's host plants suggests an indirect threat to A. antipodum's survival. The same study also suggests that the result of majority of high risk butterfly species being found in New Zealand's South Island could also be due to the higher abundance and diversity of fauna found in this part of the country. This again suggests another general, but very possible, threat to A. antipodum.
Butterflies are considered to be poorly represented in New Zealand, and thus those species that are present are considered to be culturally important for maintaining biodiversity. [9] This would be particularly significant in the case of species such as the common tussock which are unable to be found elsewhere.
The native Maori have never used butterflies for anything culturally, however, butterflies are called pūrerehua, or commonly, pupa, which translates to "nod". This is due to the likeness to nodding that the pupa's abdomen has as it bends back and forth during flight. Pupae were sometimes used in a children's game where the children would ask their grandparents if they could hold the pupa. They would do so between their thumb and forefinger then ask questions such as, "am I a good girl?" and if the pupa bent its abdomen up then it would mean "yes", and if it bent its abdomen down it would mean "no". [11]
It has been suggested that a more detailed study of variation in A. antipodum may be required, as it is possible that the singular species of Argyrophenga antipodum may instead be various separate, but very similar species. [4] In the same study, however, it was maintained that various observations, sufficient evidence for regarding A. antipodum as one species was evident in a lack of wing colour pattern differences, consistency in male genital features, and apparent evolutionary intergradation of extreme forms of A. antipodum.
The common tussock is said to have interacted with various plant species, however without specific details of the nature of this exchange. Such plants include members of the bellflower family, daisy family (Asteraceae), family Gentianaceae, and the genus Wahlenbergia . [2]
The small heath is a butterfly species belonging to the family Nymphalidae, classified within the subfamily Satyrinae. It is the smallest butterfly in this subfamily. The small heath is diurnal and flies with a noticeable fluttering flight pattern near the ground. It rests with closed wings when not in flight. It is widespread in colonies throughout the grasslands of Eurasia and north-western Africa, preferring drier habitats than other Coenonympha, such as salt marshes, alpine meadows, wetlands, and grasslands near water. However, habitat loss caused by human activities has led to a decline in populations in some locations.
Anthocharis cardamines, the orange tip, is a butterfly in the family Pieridae, which contains about 1,100 species. A. cardamines is mainly found throughout Europe and temperate Asia (Palearctic) The males feature wings with a signature orange pigmentation, which is the origin of A. cardamines' common name.
The scarce swallowtail is a butterfly belonging to the family Papilionidae. It is also called the sail swallowtail or pear-tree swallowtail.
Argyrophenga is a genus of butterflies that are endemic to New Zealand. It comprises three species that are found in the Southern Alps of the South Island of New Zealand.
Percnodaimon merula, the black mountain ringlet, is a satyrid butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is currently the only recognised species in the monotypic genus Percnodaimon, endemic to New Zealand, although there may be other undescribed species in the genus. The black mountain ringlet is notable for living exclusively in rocky areas of New Zealand's Southern Alps, usually above 1200 m. Its eggs are laid on rocks, its larvae feed on mountain Poa species, and it pupates under a stone. It has distinctive dark velvety wings and a zig-zag flight pattern over the scree slopes on which it lives.
Geitoneura klugii, the common xenica or Klug's xenica, is a species of butterfly belonging to the family Nymphalidae. It is a southern Australian butterfly that is easily camouflaged because of its resemblance to the ground where it is usually found fluttering. It has a wingspan of about 38 millimetres (1.5 in). The upper and lower side of the forewing is black with brownish-black markings and contains a black spot with a white centre. The orange hindwing is set off by a black border and a black-rimmed eyespot. The underside of the hindwing ranges from grey to brown and consists of darker markings.
Xanthorhoe semifissata, commonly known as the barred pink looper. is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is endemic to New Zealand and is found throughout the country although it is much less common in the mountains in the south and west of the South Island. The larvae host plants include Nasturtium officinale as well as species in the Cardamine genus. Adult moths inhabit shrubs at the edge of native forest.
Lycaena feredayi, the glade copper, is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is endemic to New Zealand.
Ichneutica rubescens is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is endemic to New Zealand. This species can be found locally in the North Island but is widespread throughout the South Island and is present on both Stewart Island and the Auckland Islands. I. rubescens has a round or oval mark near the centre of the forewing that encloses a dot. This is diagnostic of this species. I. rubescens inhabits tussock grasslands, beech as well as podocarp forests. Larval hosts are likely herbaceous plants such as grasses and herbs and larvae have been reared on Gunnera prorepens. Adults of this species are on the wing from December to April and are attracted to light.
Ichneutica unica is a species of moth in the family Noctuidae. It is endemic to New Zealand and is found in the centre of the North Island and throughout the South Island. This moth is very similar in appearance to its close relatives Ichneutica phaula and Ichneutica toroneura. I. phaula can be distinguished as there is a difference in pectinations on the male antennae and I. toroneura can be distinguished as the black vein markings on the forewings is more uniform for that species in comparison to I. unica. I. unica is variable in appearance with the North Island specimens having a darker brown colour on the forewings and having a darker underside of the hindwings. This species inhabits open tussock grassland at various altitudes, coastal dunes, and inland volcanic dunes. Larvae feed on tussock grasses such as Chionochloa pallens and species in the genus Poa. Adult moths are on the wing from November to February and are attracted to both sugar and light traps.
Lycaena boldenarum, the boulder copper, is a species of butterfly which is endemic to New Zealand, it is found on both North Island and South Island in a wide variety of open habitats including grassland, shingle and sand dunes. They are normally only active in bright sunny conditions and their flight is usually low to the ground. The boldenarum part of the species name given by the Scottish entomologist Adam White in honour of his first wife, Helen and her sister Frances, whose maiden name was Bolden. It shares the Maori name pepe para riki with two congeners the common copper and the glade copper.
Xanthorhoe bulbulata is a species of moth in the family Geometridae. It is endemic to New Zealand. It is classified as critically endangered by the Department of Conservation.
Asaphodes frivola, also known as the remuremu looper moth or Foveaux looper moth, is a species of moth in the family Geometridae with flightless females. It is endemic to New Zealand, and critically endangered, occurring in a very narrow and specialised habitat at just two small coastal sites near Invercargill.
Orocrambus sophistes is a moth in the family Crambidae. This species is endemic to New Zealand and has been observed in South Island at the Mackenzie Basin, Central Otago and Otago Lakes areas. This moth is a dryland specialist and inhabits short tussock grasslands. The larval host species is Festuca novae-zelandiae. The adults of this species have been observed from mid January to April with the female being flightless. The adult male is attracted to light. This species has been classified as Nationally Vulnerable by the Department of Conservation.
Paranotoreas fulva is a species of moth in the family Geometridae. This species is endemic to New Zealand and is found in the southern half of the South Island. The preferred habitat of this species are the salt pans of Otago, the mountainous grassland areas in South Canterbury and Otago and the glacial outwash terraces south of Tekapo. The larvae feed on Atriplex buchananii and Plantago coronopus. Adults are day flying and have been recorded as being on the wing in March, October and December. P. fulva is classified as "At Risk, Relict" by the Department of Conservation.
Asaphodes declarata is a species of moth in the family Geometridae. This species is endemic to New Zealand and has been observed in the southern parts of the South Island. This species prefers open tussock grassland habitat amounts beech forest and in mountainous terrain. It can be found at altitudes of between 450 and 1750 m. The adults of this species are on the wing from November to March. The moths can vary both in size and, with the female of the species, in markings.
Asaphodes dionysias is a species of moth in the family Geometridae. This species is endemic to New Zealand and is only known from mountainous areas in Central Otago. It lives in open grassy mountainous habitat at altitudes up to 1750 m. It is also known to live in wetland habitat. The larvae of this species feed on native herbs. The adults of this species are on the wing in January and February. The adult female of the species has reduced wing size in comparison to the male.
Ichneutica virescens is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is endemic to New Zealand, and is found in the southern North Island and throughout the South Island. The species is found in alpine, sub-alpine, and down to sea-level in grassland habitats. Adults are on the wing from November through to April. The likely larval host may be grasses, but larvae have been reared on a range of plants. The adults are similar to I. panda, I. falsidica and I. nobilia, but is distinguished by size, wing colouration, and antennae formation.
Asaphodes oraria is a species of moth in the family Geometridae. This species is endemic to New Zealand and has been observed in the southern South Island and on Stewart Island / Rakiura. The male is pale yellow coloured and the female has severely reduced wings and is flightless. The habitat of this species is tussock grasslands on coastal sand dunes and in the mountains at elevations of approximately 4,000ft. The larvae have adapted to feeding on exotic lawn daisy species in the genus Bellis. The adults of this species are on the wing from November to April.
Asaphodes recta is a moth in the family Geometridae. It is endemic to New Zealand and is found in the southern parts of the South Island. The preferred habitat of this species is open tussock grassland. The adults are on the wing in February and March. Larvae of this species have been reared on species in the genera Ranunculus and Bellis.
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