Artificial intelligence content detection

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Artificial intelligence detection software aims to determine whether some content (text, image, video or audio) was generated using artificial intelligence (AI).

Contents

However, the reliability of such software is a topic of debate, [1] and there are concerns about the potential misapplication of AI detection software by educators.

Accuracy issues

Multiple AI detection tools have been demonstrated to be unreliable in terms of accurately and comprehensively detecting AI-generated text. In a study conducted by Weber-Wulff et al., and published in 2023, researchers evaluated 14 detection tools including Turnitin and GPT Zero, and found that "all scored below 80% of accuracy and only 5 over 70%." [2]

Text detection

For text, this is usually done to prevent alleged plagiarism, often by detecting repetition of words as telltale signs that a text was AI-generated (including AI hallucinations). They are often used by teachers marking their students, usually on an ad hoc basis. Following the release of ChatGPT and similar AI text generative software, many educational establishments have issued policies against the use of AI by students. [3] AI text detection software is also used by those assessing job applicants, as well as online search engines. [4]

Current detectors may sometimes be unreliable and have incorrectly marked work by humans as originating from AI [5] [6] [7] while failing to detect AI-generated work in other instances. [8] MIT Technology Review said that the technology "struggled to pick up ChatGPT-generated text that had been slightly rearranged by humans and obfuscated by a paraphrasing tool". [9] AI text detection software has also been shown to discriminate against non-native speakers of English. [4]

Two students from the University of California, Davis, nearly faced expulsion after their professors scanned their essays with a text detection tool called Turnitin, which flagged the essays as having been generated by AI. However, following media coverage, [10] and a thorough investigation, the students were cleared of any wrongdoing. [11] [12]

In April 2023, Cambridge University and other members of the Russell Group of universities in the United Kingdom opted out of Turnitin's AI text detection tool, after expressing concerns it was unreliable. [13] The University of Texas at Austin opted out of the system six months later. [14]

In May 2023, a professor at Texas A&M University–Commerce used ChatGPT to detect whether his students' content was written by it, which ChatGPT said was the case. As such, he threatened to fail the class despite ChatGPT not being able to detect AI-generated writing. [15] No students were prevented from graduating because of the issue, and all but one student (who admitted to using the software) were exonerated from accusations of having used ChatGPT in their content. [16]

Anti text detection

There is software available designed to bypass AI text detection. [17]

In August 2023, a study was conducted by Taloni, et al. at Magna Græcia University and the Royal College of Ophthalmologists, to test AI text detection. [18] The study tested an AI detection tool called Originality.ai, and found it detected GPT-4 with a mean accuracy of 91.3%. [19] [20]

However, when the tool was reprocessed through another software called Undetectable.ai, the detection accuracy of Originality.ai dropped to a mean accuracy of 27.8%. [18] [7]

The study by Taloni et Al analyzed 20 abstracts from papers published in the Eye Journal, which were then paraphrased using GPT-4.0. The AI-paraphrased abstracts were examined using QueText to check for plagiarism, and Originality.AI to check for AI-generated content. The texts were then re-processed through an adversarial software called Undetectable.ai in an attempt to reduce the AI-detection scores. [18] [21] [22]

Some experts also believe that techniques like digital watermarking are ineffective because they can be removed or added to trigger false positives. [23]

Image, video, and audio detection

Several purported AI image detection software exist, to detect AI-generated images (for example, those originating from Midjourney or DALL-E). They are not completely reliable. [24] [25]

Others claim to identify video and audio deepfakes, but this technology is also not fully reliable yet either. [26]

Despite debate around the efficacy of watermarking, Google DeepMind is actively developing a detection software called SynthID, which works by inserting a digital watermark that is invisible to the human eye into the pixels of an image. [27] [28]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Turnitin</span> Internet-based plagiarism-prevention service

Turnitin is an Internet-based similarity detection service run by the American company Turnitin, LLC, a subsidiary of Advance Publications.

iThenticate is a plagiarism detection service for the corporate market, from Turnitin, LLC, which also runs Plagiarism.org.

Plagiarism detection or content similarity detection is the process of locating instances of plagiarism or copyright infringement within a work or document. The widespread use of computers and the advent of the Internet have made it easier to plagiarize the work of others.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plagiarism</span> Using another authors work as if it was ones own original work

Plagiarism is the representation of another person's language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions as one's own original work. Although precise definitions vary depending on the institution, in many countries and cultures plagiarism is considered a violation of academic integrity and journalistic ethics, as well as social norms around learning, teaching, research, fairness, respect, and responsibility. As such, a person or entity that is determined to have committed plagiarism is often subject to various punishments or sanctions, such as suspension, expulsion from school or work, fines, imprisonment, and other penalties.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chegg</span> American education technology company

Chegg, Inc., is an American education technology company based in Santa Clara, California. It provides homework help, digital and physical textbook rentals, textbooks, online tutoring, and other student services.

Grammarly is a Ukraine-founded cloud-based typing assistant, headquartered in San Francisco. It reviews spelling, grammar, punctuation, clarity, engagement, and delivery mistakes in English texts, detects plagiarism, and suggests replacements for the identified errors. It also allows users to customize their style, tone, and context-specific language.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">OpenAI</span> Artificial intelligence research organization

OpenAI is a U.S.-based artificial intelligence (AI) research organization founded in December 2015, researching artificial intelligence with the goal of developing "safe and beneficial" artificial general intelligence, which it defines as "highly autonomous systems that outperform humans at most economically valuable work". As one of the leading organizations of the AI boom, it has developed several large language models, advanced image generation models, and previously, released open-source models. Its release of ChatGPT has been credited with starting the AI boom.

Generative Pre-trained Transformer 3 (GPT-3) is a large language model released by OpenAI in 2020. Like its predecessor, GPT-2, it is a decoder-only transformer model of deep neural network, which supersedes recurrence and convolution-based architectures with a technique known as "attention". This attention mechanism allows the model to selectively focus on segments of input text it predicts to be most relevant. It uses a 2048-tokens-long context, float16 (16-bit) precision, and a hitherto-unprecedented 175 billion parameters, requiring 350GB of storage space as each parameter takes 2 bytes of space, and has demonstrated strong "zero-shot" and "few-shot" learning abilities on many tasks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DALL-E</span> Image-generating deep-learning model

DALL·E, DALL·E 2, and DALL·E 3 are text-to-image models developed by OpenAI using deep learning methodologies to generate digital images from natural language descriptions, called "prompts."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">ChatGPT</span> Chatbot developed by OpenAI

ChatGPT is a chatbot developed by OpenAI and launched on November 30, 2022. Based on large language models (LLMs), it enables users to refine and steer a conversation towards a desired length, format, style, level of detail, and language. Successive user prompts and replies are considered at each conversation stage as context.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hallucination (artificial intelligence)</span> Confident unjustified claim by AI

In the field of artificial intelligence (AI), a hallucination or artificial hallucination is a response generated by AI which contains false or misleading information presented as fact. This term draws a loose analogy with human psychology, where hallucination typically involves false percepts. However, there’s a key difference: AI hallucination is associated with unjustified responses or beliefs rather than perceptual experiences.

Generative Pre-trained Transformer 4 (GPT-4) is a multimodal large language model created by OpenAI, and the fourth in its series of GPT foundation models. It was launched on March 14, 2023, and made publicly available via the paid chatbot product ChatGPT Plus, via OpenAI's API, and via the free chatbot Microsoft Copilot. As a transformer-based model, GPT-4 uses a paradigm where pre-training using both public data and "data licensed from third-party providers" is used to predict the next token. After this step, the model was then fine-tuned with reinforcement learning feedback from humans and AI for human alignment and policy compliance.

"Deep Learning" is the fourth episode of the twenty-sixth season of the American animated television series South Park, and the 323rd episode of the series overall. Written and directed by Trey Parker, it premiered on March 8, 2023. The episode, which parodies the use of the artificial intelligence chatbot ChatGPT for text messages, centers upon fourth-grader Stan Marsh, who comes to rely on the software for writing both school essays and romantic texts to his girlfriend Wendy Testaburger, bringing him into conflict with her, his classmates, and school officials.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Generative artificial intelligence</span> AI system capable of generating content in response to prompts

Generative artificial intelligence is artificial intelligence capable of generating text, images, videos, or other data using generative models, often in response to prompts. Generative AI models learn the patterns and structure of their input training data and then generate new data that has similar characteristics.

In the 2020s, the rapid advancement of deep learning-based generative artificial intelligence models are raising questions about whether copyright infringement occurs when the generative AI is trained or used. This includes text-to-image models such as Stable Diffusion and large language models such as ChatGPT. As of 2023, there are several pending US lawsuits challenging the use of copyrighted data to train AI models, with defendants arguing that this falls under fair use.

GPTZero is an artificial intelligence detection software developed to identify artificially generated text, such as that produced by large language models.

Writesonic is a company that develops artificial intelligence tools for content creation. It was founded by Samanyou Garg in October 2020 and is based in San Francisco. The platform uses GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 technologies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">ChatGPT in education</span> Use of the chatbot in education

Since OpenAI's public release of ChatGPT in November 2022, the chatbot and its peers have been at the source of intense discussion within education, with many schools and universities taking hostile stances towards usage of large language models, while others have embraced the use of the tools in assignments. The usage of ChatGPT has inspired many to foresee a potential paradigm shift in education, with oral exams being proposed to assure that it cannot be used in tests.

QuillBot is a software developed in 2017 that uses artificial intelligence to rewrite and paraphrase text.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Undetectable.ai</span> Online text analysis and obfuscation software

Undetectable AI (Undetectable.ai) is an AI content detection software that rewrites AI-generated text to make it appear more human.

References

  1. ↑ "'Don't use AI detectors for anything important,' says the author of the definitive 'AI Weirdness' blog. Her own book failed the test". Fortune. Retrieved 2023-10-21.
  2. ↑ Weber-Wulff, Debora; Anohina-Naumeca, Alla; Bjelobaba, Sonja; Foltýnek, Tomáš; Guerrero-Dib, Jean; Popoola, Olumide; Šigut, Petr; Waddington, Lorna (2023-12-25). "Testing of detection tools for AI-generated text". International Journal for Educational Integrity. 19 (1): 26. arXiv: 2306.15666 . doi:10.1007/s40979-023-00146-z. ISSN   1833-2595.
  3. ↑ Hern, Alex (31 December 2022). "AI-assisted plagiarism? ChatGPT bot says it has an answer for that". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 July 2023.
  4. 1 2 Sample, Ian (10 July 2023). "Programs to detect AI discriminate against non-native English speakers, shows study". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  5. ↑ Fowler, Geoffrey A. (2 June 2023). "Detecting AI may be impossible. That's a big problem for teachers". The Washington Post. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  6. ↑ Tangermann, Victor (9 January 2023). "There's a Problem With That App That Detects GPT-Written Text: It's Not Very Accurate". Futurism. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  7. 1 2 "We tested a new ChatGPT-detector for teachers. It flagged an innocent student". The Washington Post. 1 April 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  8. ↑ Taylor, Josh (1 February 2023). "ChatGPT maker OpenAI releases 'not fully reliable' tool to detect AI generated content". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 July 2023.
  9. ↑ Williams, Rhiannon (7 July 2023). "AI-text detection tools are really easy to fool". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  10. ↑ "AI Detection Apps Keep Falsely Accusing Students of Cheating". Futurism. 6 June 2023. Retrieved 2023-10-21.
  11. ↑ Jimenez, Kayla. "Professors are using ChatGPT detector tools to accuse students of cheating. But what if the software is wrong?". USA TODAY. Retrieved 2023-10-21.
  12. ↑ Klee, Miles (2023-06-06). "She Was Falsely Accused of Cheating With AI -- And She Won't Be the Last". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 2023-10-21.
  13. ↑ Staton, Bethan (3 April 2023). "Universities express doubt over tool to detect AI-powered plagiarism". Financial Times. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  14. ↑ Carter, Tom. "Some universities are ditching AI detection software amid fears students could be falsely accused of cheating by using ChatGPT". Business Insider. Retrieved 2023-10-21.
  15. ↑ Verma, Prashnu (18 May 2023). "A professor accused his class of using ChatGPT, putting diplomas in jeopardy". The Washington Post. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  16. ↑ "College instructor put on blast for accusing students of using ChatGPT". NBC News. 18 May 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  17. ↑ Beam, Christopher. "The AI Detection Arms Race Is On—and College Students Are Building the Weapons". Wired. ISSN   1059-1028 . Retrieved 2023-12-02.
  18. 1 2 3 Taloni, Andrea; Scorcia, Vincenzo; Giannaccare, Giuseppe (2023-08-02). "Modern threats in academia: evaluating plagiarism and artificial intelligence detection scores of ChatGPT" . Eye. 38 (2): 397–400. doi:10.1038/s41433-023-02678-7. ISSN   1476-5454. PMID   37532832.
  19. ↑ Wiggers, Kyle (2023-02-16). "Most sites claiming to catch AI-written text fail spectacularly". TechCrunch. Retrieved 2023-10-21.
  20. ↑ "AI Content Checker and Plagiarism Check | GPT-4 | ChatGPT". originality.ai. Retrieved 2023-10-21.
  21. ↑ "The Truly Undetectable AI Content Writing Tool". Undetectable AI. Retrieved 2023-12-02.
  22. ↑ Thompson, David.(13 Dec 2023). Researchers Say Undetectable.ai Is A Modern Threat To Academia Science Times. Retrieved 13 Dec 2023
  23. ↑ Knibbs, Kate. "Researchers Tested AI Watermarks—and Broke All of Them". Wired. ISSN   1059-1028 . Retrieved 2023-10-21.
  24. ↑ Thompson, Stuart A.; Hsu, Tiffany (28 June 2023). "How Easy Is It to Fool A.I.-Detection Tools?". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  25. ↑ Rizwan, Choudhury (October 15, 2023). "Expert debunks AI tool's claim that Israel's photo is fake". Interesting Engineering. Retrieved October 22, 2023.
  26. ↑ Hsu, Tiffany; Myers, Steven Lee (18 May 2023). "Another Side of the A.I. Boom: Detecting What A.I. Makes". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  27. ↑ Pierce, David (2023-08-29). "Google made a watermark for AI images that you can't edit out". The Verge. Retrieved 2023-10-21.
  28. ↑ Wiggers, Kyle (2023-08-29). "DeepMind partners with Google Cloud to watermark AI-generated images". TechCrunch. Retrieved 2023-10-21.
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