While not the first transit-style school bus, the All American is the longest-produced model line currently in production; it is currently in its sixth generation.[1] Since 1952, Blue Bird has used a proprietary chassis for the All American, a practice later used for its TC/2000 and Vision buses (and their derivatives). The model line is produced with both front-engine and rear-engine configurations.[2]
Alongside the current generation of the All American (released in 2014[1]), the model line underwent major redesigns in 1952, 1957, 1989, 1999, and 2008. In over seven decades of production, nearly all examples have been assembled by Blue Bird at its facility in Fort Valley, Georgia. From the 1960s to the 1980s, the model line was also produced in South America, using locally sourced chassis.
Development
1930s
In the 1930s, to expand student seating capacity in school buses, manufacturers developed "forward control" school buses. By modifying conventional truck chassis, the engine was placed next to the driver and the front axle moved rearward of the entrance door. This allowed for the use of greater capacity within the same overall length and better forward visibility; the shorter wheelbase gave them improved maneuverability.
In 1932, Crown Coach introduced the Supercoach alongside a similar design by Wayne Works; Gillig introduced a design with a rear-mounted engine. In 1937, the Crown Supercoach was expanded to a capacity of 79 passengers, becoming one of the largest school buses of its time.
1940s
In the years following World War II, Blue Bird company founder A.L. Luce sought to develop his own forward control bus. In 1948, during a trip to Europe, he and his son George visited the Paris Auto Salon.[3] One of the vehicles on display was a front-engine motorcoach (either Van Hool or Jonckheere bodywork) with a General Motors chassis built in an Opel factory in Belgium.[3]
Inspired by the design, A.L. Luce sought to develop uses for the chassis as a school bus; however, the Luces learned that it was a model specifically for export markets.[3] In an effort to reverse-engineer the vehicle, A.L. Luce purchased the Paris Auto coach from the body manufacturer in order to ship it to Blue Bird in Fort Valley, Georgia.[3] Moving past the bodywork, Blue Bird engineers found that the Opel chassis shared much in common with Chevrolet medium-duty trucks converted to forward-control; the front axle was widened and modifications were made to the steering gear. In a unique feature, the transmission was shifted by remote control.[3]
Due to its design commonality with the export Opel chassis, Blue Bird selected Chevrolet as the initial chassis for the forward-control prototype.[3] The first prototype, named Blue Bird All American, was completed in 1949. Plagued by engineering issues, the All American did not enter full production until 1950.[3]
Design history
First generation (1950–1956)
For 1950 and 1951, the All American saw relatively little marketplace success; its method of assembly hindered its production. While using a Chevrolet/GMC chassis (a version used by Blue Bird conventional models), to build the All American, Blue Bird had to strip the cowled-chassis frame bare and convert it to a forward-control layout before the body was mounted to the frame. Along with adding time to final assembly, the conversion process required that nearly every chassis component be rechecked for functionality.[3]
In 1952, to improve quality and reduce production time, Blue Bird ended the use of second-party chassis for the All American, developing its own design from the ground up. Subsequently, every front-engine All American has utilized a Blue Bird chassis (rear-engine, since 1988); since 2008, all full-size Blue Bird buses use a proprietary chassis design. In a secondary change, Blue Bird expanded the range of engines for the All American beyond Chevrolet and GMC.
In the switch to the Blue Bird chassis, several changes were made to the body of the All American.[3] In a change that remains a current part of the design, the front roofline was extended forward several inches (nearly in line with the front bumper). Along with a larger entryway and entry door, the revision introduced a much larger windshield sloped nearly vertically. The overall seating capacity of the All American was expanded, with the largest versions seating up to 72 passengers.
For 1957, along with the Blue Bird Conventional, the body of the All American was given a ground-up redesign.[3][4] To better accommodate older students and adult passengers walking inside the bus standing up,[3] the roof was raised upward several inches, matched with flatter sides. The drivers' compartment was completely redesigned; to reduce blind spots, the entry door glass was enlarged and the windshield was made panoramic, nearly wrapping from the entry door to the driver window.[3]
In 1958, after federal legislation permitted their use on road vehicles, quad headlights were added to the All American;[3][4] in various forms, the All American would use quad headlights through 2013.
In 1961, Blue Bird expanded the All American product line by introducing a rear-engine "pusher" configuration.[3] Developed largely to secure bids in areas where rear-engine buses were favored, Blue Bird initially outsourced the chassis for the All American Rear Engine to GMC.[3][5] For 1962, to further improve forward visibility, the windshield was enlarged further, with two versions offered: a 4-pane flat glass version (standard) or a 2-pane curved glass (optional). For 1967, the roofline of the All American underwent a slight revision. To better accommodate the 8-lamp warning systems coming into use, the curved roof cap used since the 1930s was replaced by a flat, vertically-oriented design.[3] For 1968, the bodywork below the windshield was revised, including a new (larger) grille, vertically-stacked headlamps, and a reduction of the amount of chrome trim.[3]
During the 1970s, the All American underwent several changes; centered around compliance with the introduction of safety regulations, few changes were externally visible. To comply with regulations introduced for 1977 production, the body panels and internal structure were strengthened; as a passive restraint system, high-back padded passenger seats were added.[3] To match the front roof cap, Blue Bird changed the rear roof cap to a vertical design (borrowing bodywork from the Wanderlodge).[3]
In contrast to the first All Americans, which offered a maximum of 60-passenger seating, by the end of the 1970s, an All American could be equipped to seat 90 passengers. Alongside its rear-engine counterpart, the front-engine All American was sold with both gasoline and diesel engines. As an effect of the 1970s fuel crises, fuel economy concerns led to widespread adoption of diesel engines in high-capacity school buses.
The All American evolutionary changes during the 1980s, centered around updates to powertrain supplier. In 1981, Ford discontinued its Super Duty V8; the Chevrolet 427 cubic-inch V8 became the sole gasoline-powered engine offering. Alongside the rear-engine version, the front-engine All American was produced with diesel engines supplied by Caterpillar, Cummins, and Detroit Diesel. As a design change, in 1982, a drop-sash window was added to the rearmost row of seats, replacing a fixed pane of glass (available as an option for several years).[3]
After using second-party chassis from multiple manufacturers since 1961, Blue Bird commenced production of a proprietary chassis for the rear-engine All American for 1988.
1957-1989 Blue Bird All American powertrain details
In production for 32 years, the second-generation All American is among the longest-produced bus bodies in North American bus manufacturing history (outclassed by Crown, Gillig, and the GM New Look/Classic). With the exception of the All American D3-series and EC-72 prototypes, all full-size Blue Bird school buses produced since 1957 have derived much of their bodywork from the second-generation All American. While using a lighter-duty chassis and a different design for the driver compartment, the TC/2000 school bus also derives much of its bodywork from the second-generation All American. In various sizes, the windshield design introduced on the All American in 1962 was retained through 2013; it currently remains in use on the Vision.
Following the introduction of a rear-engine chassis for the All American in 1988, Blue Bird began a shift towards using company-produced chassis for all of its bodies; with the exception of the Micro Bird (based on a cutaway van), all Blue Bird vehicles are produced on proprietary chassis.[6]
Third generation (1989–1998)
Motor vehicle
Third generation
1992–1998 All American Forward Engine (retired, photo from Costa Rica)
Introduced during 1989 production, the third-generation All American marked the most extensive changes to the model line since 1957. To modernize the All American for both drivers and mechanics, Blue Bird made multiple changes to the interior and the chassis of the bus. For the first time since 1967, horizontally-aligned headlamps returned to the exterior.
To streamline its production, much of the body was carried over from the previous generation (entirely so, above the window line). The drivers' compartment was completely redesigned, retaining only the windshield and driver-side window. The instrument panel was angled more vertically (to better face the driver), including more legible gauges; a modernized secondary control panel was adopted from the TC/2000.
While the redesign carried over the windshield (used since 1962), multiple changes were made to upgrade driver sightlines. Alongside the redesign of the dashboard, the entry door was redesigned with larger glass panels (a design later adopted by all Blue Bird buses). On front-engine buses, a less-obstructive engine cover design provided more room for both the driver and the front entry steps (the design remained much larger than that of the TC/2000, as the two model lines used different engines). To improve serviceability, the configuration of the front body panels was revised, allowing them to be removed for general maintenance without the use of tools.
In a major change, the third-generation All American introduced an entirely new powertrain range; both manual transmissions and gasoline engines were discontinued (both remaining standard for the TC/2000). In response to the discontinuation of the Caterpillar 3208 and Detroit Diesel 8.2L V8 diesels, Cummins inline-6 diesels were introduced.[7]
Engine name
Production
Fuel
Cummins B5.9 I6
1989-1998
Diesel
Cummins C8.3 I6
1989-1998
Diesel
Caterpillar 3116
1990-1998
Diesel
Detroit Diesel 6V92
1989-1995
Diesel
John Deere 8.1L I6
1991-1999
CNG
Cummins B5.9G I6
1991-1999
CNG
To bring it in line with the TC/2000, Blue Bird rebranded the new generation of the export name of the All American to Blue Bird TC/3000. Previously, Canadian exports (the largest market outside the United States) were re-branded as Blue Bird All Canadians. As with the previous generation, the 1990 All American would change little over its production run. 1990-1991 models are distinguished by widely spaced "Blue Bird" lettering below the windshield while 1992-1998 models are identified by narrowly spaced lettering.
1992-1998 All American rear-engine (California)
1989-1991 All American front-engine in use as a bloodmobile
Retired 1989-1991 All American front-engine (Costa Rica)
Alternative-fuel vehicles
In 1991, Blue Bird took part in a California Energy Commission program to develop modern, low-emissions school buses.[8] Following the development of prototype derived from a GMC-chassis conventional,[9] Blue Bird supplied 10 buses using a GMC engine converted to run on compressed natural gas.[8][10] For subsequent phases of the program, the CNG buses were rear-engine All Americans, using engines supplied by John Deere.[8]
Outside of the California school bus study, CNG school buses became an option, with Blue Bird offering an 8.1L John Deere CNG engine as an option for the rear-engine All American alongside its TC/2000 counterpart.[11][12]
For 1999, the fourth generation of the All American was introduced.[13] Internally designated the "A3" series, the fourth generation marked a major structural revision to the model line, adopting a "drop-frame" chassis; on both configurations, the portion of the frame rails that supported the drivetrain were lowered in height.[14][15] On front-engine buses, the drop-frame design further reduced the intrusion of engine cover. Externally distinguished by its redesigned (smaller) grille and headlamp housings, the A3 series retained the body structure of the previous generation, adding the larger windshield of the TC/2000. The front fascia was largely devoid of chrome trim (relegated to the "Blue Bird" badge between the headlamps and its surrounding imitation grille trim). The dashboard again went a complete redesign with updated instruments and controls; the TC/2000 adopted the design for 2000 production. The side door design was carried over, with a black-frame door becoming an option (later becoming standard).
All American FE, showing warning lights
All American RE
All American FE in use as transit bus
All American RE in use as police command center (NYPD)
Right-hand drive All American RE exported to Wales
Drivers compartment of All American (right-hand drive version)
Blue Bird All American FE Cuyahoga County Sheriff's Office Prisoner Transport Bus.
Following the introduction of the A3 series, the Blue Bird transit-style product range would undergo an extensive transition. Following its 1999 introduction, Blue Bird discontinued the rear-engine TC/2000, consolidating its rear-engine offerings in the All American product line. In 2001, the company ended production of the TC/1000 front-engine minibus and discontinued the CS and APC commercial derivatives of both the TC/2000 and All American in 2002. To consolidate its front-engine offerings, Blue Bird discontinued the TC/2000 after 2003 (following a short run of 2004 vehicles). After 2010, Blue Bird manufactured only the Vision and the All American (with the Micro Bird manufactured by Girardin in Quebec).
At its launch, the A3 series carried over the same diesel and CNG engine offerings as the previous generation
The fourth-generation All American continued the use of Cummins and Caterpillar inline-6 diesel engines; initially, the John Deere 8.1L engine was offered for CNG use, later replaced by a 5.9L Cummins and ISL-G Cummins engines.[14][15]
Blue Bird All American A3FE/A3RE powertrain specifications[14][15]
Engine name
Fuel
Transmission
Caterpillar 3126/C7
Diesel
Allison AT545
Allison MT643
Allison MD3060
Allison MD3066
Cummins ISC 8.3
Cummins ISB 5.9
Cummins ISB 6.7
John Deere 8.1L I6
CNG
Cummins B5.9G
Cummins ISL-G
As Blue Bird initially intended to replace the model line entirely with the fifth-generation D3 series, the rear-engine A3 was discontinued in 2008. Supported by continued customer demand, the front-engine A3 was produced through 2013 (outliving its successor by a year), when the sixth-generation T3 series replaced both the fourth-generation and fifth-generation All Americans.
Alongside its traditional role of a yellow school bus, the A3 series was produced for other applications; the model line was offered for sale for U.S. General Services Administration motor pool fleets, along for export worldwide.
Introduced for 2010 production, the fifth-generation All American (internally designated the "D3" series) was unveiled at an industry trade show in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina on October 28, 2008.[16][failed verification] The D3 series marked the most extensive changes to the body design of the All American (and all Blue Bird buses) in over 50 years. For the first time since 1957, the All American returned to two headlamps (round ones, for the first time since early 1989). Completely devoid of chrome trim, the design deleted "Blue Bird" lettering from the front of the bus (replacing it with a company logo).
Continuing the use of a drop-frame chassis from the previous generation, the body received a completely new roofline and drivers' compartment design. The shape of the roofline was squared off and raised in height (matching the previous high-headroom roof); as a part of the redesign, the entry door was raised in height. The long-running flat-glass windshield was replaced by a two-piece curved design (extending further downward and upward); to improve sightlines, the sideview and convex mirrors were integrated into a single housing. At the rear of the bus, the emergency door was redesigned, enlarged in height and width (for the first time since the second generation). The drivers' compartment received a new steering column and instrument panel (both later used by the Vision), along with a new layout for driver controls (on both sides of the steering wheel).
The D3 series continued the use of diesel and CNG engines (the latter, on rear-engine vehicles). Coinciding with the exit of Caterpillar from on-highway engine production, all engines were sourced from Cummins. Front-engine buses were powered by the Cummins ISB 6.7, with rear-engine buses using the ISC 8.3.
In production for only four years, the D3 series is the shortest-produced version of the All American. Intended as the successor to the A3, the D3 replaced the rear-engine A3 directly for 2009, with Blue Bird producing the front-engine version of the model line alongside its predecessor to accommodate customer demand. Both versions of the D3 were discontinued after 2012, with the front-engine A3 ending production in 2013.
Introduced for 2014 production, the sixth-generation T3 series replaced both the fourth and fifth generation versions of the model line.
In October 2012, Blue Bird debuted the sixth generation of the All American for 2014 production (internally designated the T3 series).[1][19] Replacing both the fourth and fifth generations (produced concurrently), the sixth generation introduced additional structural upgrades to the body. In a central part of the redesign, Blue Bird increased parts commonality between the All American and the Vision conventional-style bus, with the two sharing additional dashboard controls and components.
While visibly sharing lower body panels with the A3 series and the Vision, the T3 introduced a number of structural reinforcements to the body, intended for increased rollover protection;[19] the redesign reintroduced the curved roof configuration. While the grille was redesigned (becoming a slotted panel), the front fascia was largely retained from the D3 series, sharing its two-piece windshield and round headlamps. In a visual change, Blue Bird ended the use of the full-length roofline "streamer" (roof stripe), replacing it with a design shared directly with Micro Bird buses (further increasing production commonality).
90-passenger All American FE (T3)
84-passenger All American RE (T3)
A 2018 All American RE configured for transit use, in Salem, Oregon
Since its introduction, the sixth-generation All American has been offered with both diesel and CNG engines. A 6.7L Cummins inline-6 diesel is the standard engine for both front-engine and rear-engine versions; both diesel and CNG versions of the Cummins ISL (Cummins L9 since 2018) are options for the rear-engine T3.
In 2019, Blue Bird introduced a battery-electric version of the All American, which uses the rear-engine chassis.
Right-hand drive Blue Bird TC/3000 REs in Wales1980 Blue Bird All American FE (South America) in Chile (unknown chassis)
Throughout much of its production, the All American has been exported by Blue Bird to markets worldwide as both a school bus and for other applications. Following the expansion of Blue Bird into Canada in 1958, the All American adopted the Blue Bird All Canadian brand name. Following the 1988 introduction of the TC/2000, the All Canadian was renamed the Blue Bird TC/3000, using the same name in all export markets. Export versions of the D3 and T3 generations are branded as the TX3 and TX4, respectively.
Following the 1966 establishment of its manufacturing facility located in Guatemala (Blue Bird Central America), the factory produced buses using the All American body.[3] In a shift from its American-produced counterpart, Blue Bird Central America used locally sourced truck chassis (Ford, Mercedes-Benz, and Hino), instead of the proprietary Blue Bird chassis. Alongside school buses, many examples were built for mass transit. Blue Bird Central America was closed by the company in the early 1980s.
Central American countries like El Salvador and Honduras, have been known to use Bluebird, Thomas, and IC School Buses and convert them to Transit Buses, Usually the older ones.
Variants
Blue Bird CSFE3000
Commercial use (APC/CS)
Alongside buses produced for multiple applications, Blue Bird produced two distinct model commercial-use model ranges of the All American during the 1990s. The Blue Bird APC (All Purpose Coach) was directly derived from the body of the school bus, typically fitted with transit bus seating.[23] The heaviest-duty model (the APC 3000) was derived from the All American.
Again sharing its chassis underpinnings with the TC/2000 and All American, the Blue Bird CS (Commercial Series) is a commercial transit bus that was produced during the 1990s;[24] the heaviest-duty CS 3000 was derived from the All American. The CS was fitted with its own roofline, including transit passenger windows, a wheelchair lift, and a destination sign.
After 2002, the APC and CS were withdrawn, with all commercial-use buses (such as law-enforcement vehicles) directly derived from the All American A3-series. Subsequently, Blue Bird did not design transit bus variants of the D3 and T3 generations.
From 1963 to 1989, the Blue Bird Wanderlodge luxury motorhome was derived from body and chassis of the second-generation All American. Initially developed as a front-engine vehicle, Blue Bird introduced rear-engine versions in 1982 (the first tandem-axle Blue Bird). During the 1980s, the design of the two model lines began to diverge, with Blue Bird ending use of the All American chassis for 1990 production, as the Wanderlodge adopted a 102-inch body width (not then legal for school buses).
In 2007, Blue Bird sold the rights to the Wanderlodge model line, with production ending in 2009.
The Blue Bird Corporation is an American bus manufacturer headquartered in Fort Valley, Georgia. Best known for its production of school buses, the company has also manufactured a wide variety of other bus types, including transit buses, motorhomes, and specialty vehicles such as mobile libraries and mobile police command centers. Currently, Blue Bird concentrates its product lineup on school buses, school pupil activity buses, and specialty vehicle derivatives.
A school bus is any type of bus owned, leased, contracted to, or operated by a school or school district. It is regularly used to transport students to and from school or school-related activities, but not including a charter bus or transit bus. Various configurations of school buses are used worldwide; the most iconic examples are the yellow school buses of the United States which are also found in other parts of the world.
Thomas Built Buses, Inc. is an American bus manufacturer. Best known for its production of the first ever rear engine Type C school bus. Thomas produces other bus designs for a variety of usages. Currently, its production is concentrated on school buses and activity buses, along with their commercial derivatives.
IC Bus is an American bus manufacturer. Headquartered in Lisle, Illinois, IC is a wholly owned subsidiary of International Motors. Established in 2002 by Navistar through the reorganization of subsidiary manufacturer American Transportation Corporation (AmTran), IC currently produces school buses and commercial-use buses for multiple applications.
Van Hool NV is a Belgian coachbuilder and manufacturer of buses, coaches, trolleybuses, and trailers.
The Chevrolet and GMC B series was a series of cowled chassis that were produced by General Motors. Produced across three generations from 1966 to 2003, the model line was a variant of medium-duty trucks marketed under the Chevrolet and GMC nameplates. Initially derived from the medium-duty C/K series, later examples were derived from the GMT530 architecture.
The Thomas Saf-T-Liner C2 is a cowled-chassis bus manufactured by bus body manufacturer Thomas Built Buses. Introduced in 2004, the vehicle is produced primarily as a school bus; other configurations of the model line were developed for commercial use and specialty configurations.
The Thomas Saf-T-Liner is the name of the transit-style school bus product line produced by Thomas Built Buses. Introduced in 1978, the Saf-T-Liner marked the transition to in-house chassis production by Thomas. In addition to school bus applications, variations of the Saf-T-Liner have been produced as activity buses, specialty vehicles, and commercial/transit buses. It can also be used to describe the Saf-T-Liner C2 or Saf-T-Liner FS-65, but they are not considered part of the Saf-T-Liner family.
The Gillig Transit Coach School Bus is a series of buses that were produced by the American bus manufacturer Gillig from 1940 to 1982. Alongside its namesake usage as a yellow school bus, the Transit Coach also served as the basis of motorcoaches and other commercial-use vehicles. Marketed primarily to operators on or near the West Coast of the United States, the Transit Coach competed nearly exclusively against the similar Crown Supercoach through much of its production.
The Blue Bird Vision is a school bus that is manufactured and marketed by Blue Bird Corporation in North America and exported worldwide. In production since 2003, the Vision became the first cowled-chassis bus built on a proprietary chassis designed and manufactured by the same company. While it is sold primarily in a school bus configuration, the Blue Bird Vision is also offered with various commercial and specialty seating and design configurations.
The International S series is a range of trucks that was manufactured by International Harvester from 1977 to 2001. Introduced to consolidate the medium-duty IHC Loadstar and heavy-duty IHC Fleetstar into a single product range, the S series was slotted below the Transtar and Paystar Class 8 conventionals.
The Blue Bird TC/2000 is a product line of buses that was produced by the American manufacturer Blue Bird Corporation from 1987 to 2003. Introduced as a second transit-style product range alongside the Blue Bird All American, the TC/2000 was produced in front-engine and rear-engine layouts. While produced primarily as a yellow school bus, Blue Bird offered the TC/2000 in commercial configurations and numerous custom-built variants. For commercial use, Blue Bird badged the model line as the TC/2000 or the APC 2000.
The ThomasMinotour is a bus body manufactured by Thomas Built Buses since 1980. The smallest vehicle sold by the company, the Minotour is a bus body designed for cutaway van chassis. Primarily sold for school bus usage, the Minotour is also produced as a MFSAB or in specialized configurations specified by the customer.
Wanderlodge is a retired series of recreational vehicles built by American bus manufacturer Blue Bird Body Company. Introduced as the Blue Bird Transit Home in 1963, the Wanderlodge was a derivative of the Blue Bird All American school bus for over year; two further generations were produced, adapting motorcoach body and chassis design.
The Gillig Low Floor is a transit bus manufactured by Gillig since 1997. The second low-floor bus design introduced in the United States, the Low Floor originally served as a second product range for the company alongside the Gillig Phantom. As transit bus operators shifted toward low-floor designs, the Low Floor has replaced the Phantom entirely, becoming the sole vehicle platform offered by the company since 2008.
The Crown Supercoach is a bus that was constructed and marketed by Crown Coach Corporation from 1948 to 1991. While most examples were sold as yellow school buses, the Supercoach formed the basis for motorcoaches and other specialty vehicles using the same body and chassis. While technically available outside of the West Coast, nearly all Crown school buses were sold in Washington state, Oregon and California.
The Ford B series is a bus chassis that was manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Produced across six generations from 1948 to 1998, the B series was a variant of the medium-duty Ford F series. As a cowled-chassis design, the B series was a bare chassis aft of the firewall, intended for bodywork from a second-stage manufacturer. While primarily used for school bus applications in the United States and Canada, the chassis was exported worldwide to manufacturers to construct bus bodies for various uses.
The Wayne Lifestar is a product line of buses that was manufactured and marketed by Wayne Corporation and its successor company Wayne Wheeled Vehicles from 1986 to 1995. Produced nearly exclusively in a school bus configuration, the Wayne Lifestar used a transit-style body configuration with a front-engine chassis. Marking the return to transit-style production, the Lifestar adopted the single-piece body stampings of the Wayne Lifeguard in its construction.
The Freightliner FS-65 is a cowled school bus chassis that was manufactured by Freightliner from 1997 to 2008. Derived from the Freightliner FL-Series medium-duty trucks, the FS-65 was produced primarily for school bus applications, though commercial-use buses and cutaway-cab buses were also built using the FS-65 chassis.
The Freightliner Business Class M2 is a model range of medium-duty trucks produced by Freightliner since the 2003 model year. The first generation of the Business Class developed entirely by Freightliner, the M2 replaced the FL-Series introduced in 1991. Serving as a Class 5-Class 8 product range, the M2 competes primarily against the International MV and the Ford F-650/F-750 Super Duty.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
