The California flying fish,[2]Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus californicus, is a subspecies of Bennett's flying fish, Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus. Prior to the 1970s, the California flying fish was known as a distinct species, with the scientific classification Cypselurus californicus. The California flying fish is one of 40[2] distinct classifications of flying fish. It is the largest member of the flying fish family, growing up to 19 inches (48cm) in length. It is a marine species found in the Eastern Pacific Ocean, from Oregon to Baja California. As with all other flying fish, the California can not actually fly, it launches itself into the air, using its specially adapted fins to glide along the surface. The California flying fish spends most of its time in the open ocean but comes close to shore at night to forage and lay eggs in the protection of kelp beds.
The California flying fish has gone through various scientific name changes over the years. It was first described by naturalist James Graham Cooper in 1864 as Cypselurus californicus. It was then renamed to Cypsilurus californicus by Jordan and Evermann in 1898, and slightly modified again to Cypselurus californicus in 1907 by Starks and Morris. The California flying fish underwent a major name change in 1944, described by Fowler as Parexocoetoides vanderbilti.[3] Today, the California flying fish is classified as Cheilopogon californicus. Cheilopogon originates from the Greek words cheilos and pogon, cheilos meaning lip, and pogon meaning barbed or bearded.[4] This most likely refers to the large barbel on the mouth of juvenile flying fish. The oldest known “flying” relative of the California flying fish, Potanichthys xingyiensis, was discovered in 2013 by paleontologists in southwest China. Potanichthys xingyiensis is a member of Thoracopteridae, an extinct family of bony fish that existed during the Triassic period.[5]
Geographic distribution of the California flying fish
California flying fish live in the Eastern Pacific Ocean, ranging from Oregon to Baja California. The mean sea surface temperature is the largest factor in determining where flying fish live. Their flight is energetically limited by water temperature, so their population richness is limited to southern California and Baja California waters. Data shows that their top speed is ten meters per second, which can only be achieved at temperatures above 20 degrees Celcius.[6] As a result, flying fish prefer tropical and temperate climates. The Eastern Tropical Pacific Ocean (ETP) supports the vast majority of this species and their predators. They do not have a niche diet and can find cyanobacteria and small eukaryotes almost anywhere. Thus their habitat at a taxonomic scale spans not only the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States but also the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. California flying fish live in the epipelagic zone, the top 200 meters of the ocean where there is ample sunlight. They are also neritic, meaning that they live in more shallow areas of the ocean.[4]
Life Stages and Reproduction
All flying fish are oviparous,[7] meaning they reproduce by laying eggs rather than giving birth to live young. California flying fish undergo multiple stages of development: the egg, larval, juvenile, and adult stages.
Egg
California flying fish lay their eggs on kelp beds. Their eggs have been observed to have about 60 adhesive filaments, structures that help the egg attach to surfaces like kelp and other debris in the open ocean.[8] Their ova is about 1.64 mm in diameter.[3]
Larval
At the larval stage, they have a yolk sac, which functions as a source of nutrients for the young fish. There are also important hormones and enzymes stored in the yolk for the developing fish.[9] Their mouth is inferior, or subterminal. Their body is heavily pigmented with cells called melanophores. The dorsal and anal fin are still connected to the caudal fin. These fins are separated as the fish grows.
Juvenile
A juvenile California flying fish with a large barbel on its mouth
Juvenile California flying fish can easily be spotted by their large barbel, a sensory organ near the mouth of the fish. It is made up of 14 flaps that make a fan-like shape.[10] The barbel is lost as the fish matures into an adult. At this stage, their mouth develops into a superior mouth type, which is useful for eating at the top of the water column. The snouts of juvenile California flying fish are shorter than the snouts of adults. Juveniles can also be distinguished by their elevated dorsal fin, which are much larger in comparison to the rest of their fins. Juveniles often have dark blotches around their rays, which are lost by the time they reach the adult stage. Compared to adults, the bodies of juvenile California flying fish are more slender.[3]
Adult
Adult California flying fish have a blue-grey body with a silver underbelly. They have clear pectoral fins and a dark grey caudal fin.[10] Adults have a shorter dorsal fin compared to juveniles. They do not have a barbel. At this stage, the snout is still relatively short, but still longer in comparison to a juvenile.[3]
Otolith analysis has been successfully used in other species of flying fish to determine their age and growth rates.[11] There is no current data on the lifespan of the California flying fish, however, flying fish in general are believed to live for about 5 years.[2]
Ecology
Flying fish are large enough to eat zooplankton, but small enough to be consumed by top predators. For this reason, flying fish form a central mid-trophic component on epipelagic oceanic food webs.[6] California flying fish are mainly preyed upon by squid and large fish like tuna. They make up a large part of the diet of dolphinfish who live near the California coast. There have also been accounts of pelagic seabirds such as the black-footed albatross catching flying fish.[12]
Adult California flying fish have a superior mouth type, meaning they are upturned. This mouth shape is useful for eating food at the top of the water column. As a result, their diet mainly consists of plankton, fish larvae, and fish eggs.[8]
Anatomy
A scientific illustration of the California flying fish
California flying fish have 9-13 dorsal rays and 9-12 anal rays. They have a deeply forked caudal fin with the bottom lobe larger than the top lobe. Their lateral line, an organ that helps fish detect movement in the water, is located relatively low on the body. Their scales are large and smooth, contributing to this fish’s shiny appearance. They have only about 50 scales located in front of their dorsal fin.[10] They have 48-51 vertebrae and 10-12 branchiostegal rays.[4]
"Flight" Mechanics
Fins on the California flying fish
The California flying fish's key characteristic is that it is seen to be able to "fly". Although their name is "flying" fish, the California flying fish is technically incapable[2] of flight. To fly, California flying fish begin by swimming rapidly while spreading their pectoral fins. They do this while quickly moving their caudal fin back and forth to supply power.[13] Their pectoral fins are not used for flapping, rather they are used to support the fish while in the air.[14] At a speed of over 56 kilometers (35 miles) per hour, they propel themselves out of the water. Then, as they begin to enter the air, they stop moving the caudal fin and begin to glide.[13] Those who have observed the California flying fish in the air have noted that they come out of the water moving at a high speed, rather than jumping directly into the air from a resting position.[14] The length of a flight averages 25 feet (7.6 meters), with a height capping out at approximately 5 feet (1.5 meters). California flying fish typically make up to five successive flights of decreasing distance and height at a time.
The flying fish's evolutionary streamlined body (which reduces drag) and winglike pectoral fins (that can be laid flat) allow for this species of fish to "fly". Flying fish can be classified into two aerodynamic designs, monoplane and biplane. California flying fish are biplane, meaning they have two sets of “wings”.[15] Their pectoral fins function as their main set of wings, which stay in the air as they “fly”. The pelvic fins function as the underwings; they glide along the water to lift the fish into the air.[16] Their wings are made up of bony fin rays that are covered by a soft membrane. The upper parts of the wing have a smooth surface, while the undersides have a ribbed structure that provides support.[17]
It is relatively rare for a species to be well-evolved for both swimming and flying. It is especially interesting to note that California flying fish are considered large for a fish that is able to glide.[14] To be energetically efficient in the water, it is beneficial to have a body type that minimizes drag, which slows the fish down. However, in order to effectively fly, features that allow lift are more beneficial. Evolving a feature that is beneficial for efficient swimming may hurt the chances of flying effectively, and vice versa.[18]
There are various theories on why flying fish evolved to glide in the air. One widely accepted theory is that they evolved to escape predators in the water.[18] Another theory is that it is more energy-efficient for fish to glide through the air when they need to travel at great speeds or distances. The drag experienced in the air is often less than that of the water, making it a reasonable hypothesis that gliding evolved as an energy-saving tactic. Some researchers believe that their gliding is similar to the act of porpoising in aquatic animals like dolphins.[18] Generally, the reasons for leaping behavior in the water have not been concretely proven, and are still up for debate.
Conservation
The California flying fish is currently classified by the IUCN as Least Concern.[19] There are currently no listed major threats to the California flying fish. California flying fish are said to have a very pungent odor, so they are not caught for human consumption.[20] However, flying fish will occasionally be used as bait by recreational fishers. Some artificial flying fish lures have been developed as an alternative to live bait. However, this is not a widespread practice among fishers. There is one known fishery in southern California that sells frozen flying fish as bait for various species of tuna. These are not collected on a mass scale, however. Fishers capture the flying fish by hand with small dipnets.[21] There have been cases where flying fish were reported to jump onto well-lit boats, attracted by the light.[2]
Even though the California flying fish population does not face any significant direct threats from humans, human-induced climate change will inevitably have an effect on flying fish. Climate change has been shown to have an impact on plankton population density.[22] The California flying fish heavily relies on plankton as a food source, so if climate change were to significantly impact plankton, this could affect the California flying fish.
As of now, there have not yet been any conservation measures established specifically for the California flying fish. There are various marine protected areas, however, that overlaps with their native range.[19] Abundance data specifically on the California flying fish has not been reported.
Cultural Significance
The California flying fish is especially culturally significant to Catalina Island, an island located near Los Angeles, California. Catalina Island previously had an annual flying fish festival held from late May to early June.[20] Though this festival is no longer held, the island has other ways of celebrating the arrival of the California flying fish. During the summer months, various tours are offered to see the flying fish from small boats. These tours are often offered at night, and lights are shined down into the water to attract plankton.[23] Since plankton makes up a large percentage of the California flying fish’s diet, the fish are attracted to the area for tourists to see.
Related Research Articles
The Exocoetidae are a family of marine ray-finned fish in the order Beloniformes, known colloquially as flying fish or flying cod. About 64 species are grouped in seven genera. While they cannot fly in the same way a bird does, flying fish can make powerful, self-propelled leaps out of the water where their long wing-like fins enable gliding for considerable distances above the water's surface. The main reason for this behavior is thought to be to escape from underwater predators, which include swordfish, mackerel, tuna, and marlin, among others, though their periods of flight expose them to attack by avian predators such as frigate birds.
Hirundichthys is a genus of flying fish. They have elongated, moderately thick, ventrally flattened bodies. The pectoral branch of the lateral line is absent. The upper jaw is not protrusible. The dorsal fin has fewer or equal rays than the anal fin; the dorsal fin is low, with the anterior rays the longest, the pectoral fins are strikingly long, reaching to or almost to caudal fin base; pelvic fins are long, reaching beyond the anal fin origin, and their insertion is closer to the anal fin origin than to the pectoral fin insertion.
The Pacific staghorn sculpin is a species of marine ray-finned fish belonging to the family Cottidae, the typical sculpins. This species is found in the eastern Pacific Ocean. It is the only species in the monospecific genus Lepidocottus.
Cheilopogon is a genus of flyingfishes. They are found worldwide except the Antarctic and Arctic oceans.
The rock beauty, also known as corn sugar, coshubba, rock beasty, catalineta, and yellow nanny, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a marine angelfish belonging to the family Pomacanthidae. It is found in the western Atlantic Ocean.
Plotosus is a genus of eeltail catfishes native to the Indian Ocean, the western Pacific Ocean and New Guinea.
The mutton snapper is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a snapper belonging to the family Lutjanidae. It is found in the Western Atlantic Ocean.
Synodontis petricola, known as the cuckoo catfish, or the pygmy leopard catfish, is a species of upside-down catfish endemic to Burundi, Zambia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Tanzania where it is only known from Lake Tanganyika. It was first described by Belgian ichthyologist Hubert Matthes in 1959. The species name "petricola" is derived from a combination of the Latin petra, meaning stone or rock, and the Latin cola, meaning inhabitant. This refers to the rocky environment where this species is found.
The mirrorwing flyingfish is a flying fish of the family Exocoetidae. It was first described by the French zoologist, Achille Valenciennes in a 22-volume work titled Histoire naturelle des poissons, which was a collaboration with Georges Cuvier.
Synodontis robbianus, known as the russet synodontis, is a species of upside-down catfish that is native to Nigeria where it is found in the Cross and lower Niger Rivers. It was first described by John Alexander Smith in 1875, from specimens collected in the Calabar River, Nigeria. The species name robbianus is named after Rev. Alexander Robb, a Scottish missionary, who collected the original species samples.
The Atlantic flyingfish is a flying fish in the family Exocoetidae. The flyingfish fauna is made up of 16 total species, 6 of which belong to the genus Cheilopogon, including C. melanurus. The Atlantic flyingfish is also in the order Beloniformes and class Actinopterygii. It was first described by the French zoologist, Achille Valenciennes in a 22-volume work entitled Histoire naturelle des poissons, which was a collaboration with fellow zoologist Georges Cuvier.
Certain species of fish and birds are able to locomote in both air and water, two fluid media with very different properties. A fluid is a particular phase of matter that deforms under shear stresses and includes any type of liquid or gas. Because fluids are easily deformable and move in response to applied forces, efficiently locomoting in a fluid medium presents unique challenges. Specific morphological characteristics are therefore required in animal species that primarily depend on fluidic locomotion. Because the properties of air and water are so different, swimming and flying have very disparate morphological requirements. As a result, despite the large diversity of animals that are capable of flight or swimming, only a limited number of these species have mastered the ability to both fly and swim. These species demonstrate distinct morphological and behavioral tradeoffs associated with transitioning from air to water and water to air.
The sailfin flying fish is a member of the flying fish family (Exocoetidae). As is typical of other members of its family, this species has the ability to jump out of the water and glide on hypertrophied fins in order to evade predators. It is considered a “two-winged” flying fish, meaning that it only has enlarged pectoral fins, as opposed to “four-winged” flying fish, which have both enlarged pectoral and pelvic fins.
Cheilopogon nigricans, the blacksail flyingfish, also known as African flyingfish, or leaping flyingfish, is a flying fish in the family Exocoetidae. It is an oceanodromous, plankton-eating marine fish which has commercial value.
Exocoetus volitans, commonly known as the tropical two-wing flyingfish or blue flyingfish, is a species of ray-finned fish native to tropical and subtropical seas. It can glide above the surface of the sea to escape predators.
Exocoetus obtusirostris, commonly known as the oceanic two-wing flyingfish or the blunt-snouted flyingfish, is a species of ray-finned fish native to the tropical and subtropical western Atlantic Ocean. It has the ability to glide above the surface of the water to escape from predators.
Hirundichthys rondeletii, the black wing flyingfish, is a species of flying fish from the family Exocoetidae which is found throughout the tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans.
Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus, Bennett's flying fish, is a species of flying fish which has a circumglobal distribution in tropical and subtropical seas. It is an epiplegaic species which feeds on zooplankton and small fishes and is capable of leaping out of the water and gliding over the surface.
Exocoetus peruvianus, commonly known as the Peruvian flyingfish, is a species of ray-finned fish endemic to the tropical southeast Pacific Ocean in the waters off Peru and Ecuador.
Cheilopogon papilio, the butterfly flyingfish, is a species of ray-finned fish within the family Exocoetidae, distributed in the eastern Pacific off the coasts of Mexico in Baja California and the Revillagigedos Islands, as well as some areas off Costa Rica and Panama. Other common names of the species include the exocet papillon in French and volador mariposa in Spanish.
1 2 3 4 Hubbs, C.L.; Kamps, E.M. (1946). "The Early Stages (Egg, Prolarva and Juvenile) and the Classification of the California Flyingfish". Copeia. 4 (1946): 188–218. doi:10.2307/1438107.
↑ Xu, G.; Zhao, L.; Gao, K.; Wu, F. (January 2013). "A new stem-neopterygian fish from the Middle Triassic of China shows the earliest over-water gliding strategy of the vertebrates". Proc Biol Sci. 280 (1750). doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.2261.
1 2 Lewallen, Eric A.; van Wijnen, Andre J.; Bonin, Carolina A.; Lovejoy, Nathan R. (December 2018). "Flyingfish (Exocoetidae) species diversity and habitats in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean". Marine Biodiversity. 48 (4): 1755–1765. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1990.tb04009.x.
↑ Lewallen, Eric; Pitman, Robert; Kjartanson, Shawna; Lovejoy, Nathan (December 2010). "Molecular systematics of flyingfishes (Teleostei: Exocoetidae): evolution in the epipelagic zone". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 102 (1): 161–174. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2010.01550.x.
1 2 Breder, C.M. Jr. (December 1930). "On the Structural Specilization of Flying Fishes from the Standpoint of Aerodynamics". Copeia. 1930 (4): 114–121. doi:10.2307/1436467.
1 2 3 Hubbs, C. (1918). "The Flight of the California Flying-Fish (Cypselurus californicus)". Copeia. 62: 85–88. doi:10.2307/1435974.
↑ Zool, J. (1990). "Wing design and scaling of flying fish with regard to flight performance". Journal of Zoology. 221 (3): 343–515. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1990.tb04009.x.
↑ Davenport, John (June 1994). "How and why do flying fish fly?". Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries. 4 (2): 184–214. doi:10.1007/BF00044128.
↑ Park, H.; Choi, H. (2010). "Aerodynamic characteristics of flying fish in gliding flight". Journal of Experimental Biology. 213 (19): 3269–3279. doi:10.1242/jeb.046052.
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