A Carnot battery is a type of energy storage system that stores electricity in thermal energy storage. During the charging process, electricity is converted into heat and kept in heat storage. During the discharging process, the stored heat is converted back into electricity. [1] [2]
Marguerre patented the concept of this technology 100 years ago, [3] but its development was recently revitalized, given the increased use of renewable energies and the need to increase the total recovered energy delivered from such sources. In this context, Andre Thess coined the term "Carnot battery" in 2018, prior to the first International Workshop on Carnot Batteries. [4]
The term "Carnot battery" is derived from Carnot's theorem, which describes the maximum efficiency of conversion of heat energy into mechanical energy. The word "battery" indicates that the purpose of this technology is to store electricity. The discharge efficiency of Carnot batteries is limited by the Carnot efficiency.
The German Aerospace Center (DLR) and University of Stuttgart have been working on the concept of Carnot batteries that store electricity in high-temperature heat storage since 2014. [5] In 2018, the name "Carnot battery" was used at the Hannover Messe, [6] one of the world's largest trade fairs, by DLR. [5] The concept of Carnot batteries also covers technologies that have been developed previously, [7] such as pumped thermal energy storage [8] [9] and liquid air energy storage.
In the transition to low-carbon energy systems, the penetration of variable renewable energy in electrical energy systems increases, and this also increases the need for energy storage. Currently, most of the new installed energy storage capacity comes from electrochemical batteries, such as lithium-ion batteries. This type of battery is suitable for short-term storage but may not be economical for longer durations due to its high energy capacity costs. [7] Thermal energy storage can store energy in inexpensive materials, such as water, rocks, and salts. Therefore, the cost for large-scale systems (e.g. gigawatt hours) can be lower than the cost of electrochemical batteries. [5]
Energy Storage Annex 36 - Carnot Batteries is a working group under the Energy Conservation and Energy Storage (ECES) programme, which is part of a Technology Collaboration Programme (TCP) under the International Energy Agency (IEA). [10]
A Carnot battery system can be divided into three parts: Power to Thermal (P2T), Thermal Energy Storage (TES), and Thermal to Power (T2P).
Electricity can be converted into heat through the use of various technologies. [1]
According to the mechanism to store heat, thermal energy storage can be divided into three types: sensible heat storage, latent heat storage, and thermochemical storage. The storage materials that have been used for Carnot batteries are:
Heat can be converted into power through thermodynamic cycles, such as the Rankine cycle or Brayton cycle. Some technologies use the property of semiconductor materials to convert heat into electricity, and those are not considered a Carnot battery because there are no thermodynamic cycles involved in the conversion process, such as thermoelectric materials and the "Sun in a box". [14] The typical technologies are:
The Carnot battery has been known by several other names such as “Pumped Thermal Electricity Storage’’ (PTES) or “Pumped Heat Electricity Storage” (PHES). This relatively new technology has become one of the most promising large-scale energy storage technologies.
The main advantages of the Carnot battery are: [16]
The major drawback of this technology is: [17]
Carnot batteries can be used as grid energy storage to store excess power from variable renewable energy sources and to produce electricity when needed.
Some Carnot battery systems can use the stored heat or cold for other applications, such as district heating and cooling for data centers.
Carnot batteries have been proposed as a solution to convert existing coal-fired power plants into a fossil fuel-free generation system by replacing the coal fueled boiler. [19] [20] The existing facilities in power plants such as power generation systems and transmission systems can be used.
Although the term Carnot battery is new, many existing technologies can be classified as Carnot batteries. [7]
Energy storage is the capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time to reduce imbalances between energy demand and energy production. A device that stores energy is generally called an accumulator or battery. Energy comes in multiple forms including radiation, chemical, gravitational potential, electrical potential, electricity, elevated temperature, latent heat and kinetic. Energy storage involves converting energy from forms that are difficult to store to more conveniently or economically storable forms.
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of technologies such as solar power to generate electricity, solar thermal energy, and solar architecture. It is an essential source of renewable energy, and its technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power, and solar water heating to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
A compressed-air car is a compressed-air vehicle powered by pressure vessels filled with compressed air. It is propelled by the release and expansion of the air within a motor adapted to compressed air. The car might be powered solely by air, or combined with other fuels such as gasoline, diesel, or an electric plant with regenerative braking.
Distributed generation, also distributed energy, on-site generation (OSG), or district/decentralized energy, is electrical generation and storage performed by a variety of small, grid-connected or distribution system-connected devices referred to as distributed energy resources (DER).
Solar thermal energy (STE) is a form of energy and a technology for harnessing solar energy to generate thermal energy for use in industry, and in the residential and commercial sectors.
Compressed-air energy storage (CAES) is a way to store energy for later use using compressed air. At a utility scale, energy generated during periods of low demand can be released during peak load periods.
The Rankine cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle describing the process by which certain heat engines, such as steam turbines or reciprocating steam engines, allow mechanical work to be extracted from a fluid as it moves between a heat source and heat sink. The Rankine cycle is named after William John Macquorn Rankine, a Scottish polymath professor at Glasgow University.
Grid energy storage is a collection of methods used for energy storage on a large scale within an electrical power grid. Electrical energy is stored during times when electricity is plentiful and inexpensive or when demand is low, and later returned to the grid when demand is high, and electricity prices tend to be higher.
Thermal energy storage (TES) is achieved with widely different technologies. Depending on the specific technology, it allows excess thermal energy to be stored and used hours, days, months later, at scales ranging from the individual process, building, multiuser-building, district, town, or region. Usage examples are the balancing of energy demand between daytime and nighttime, storing summer heat for winter heating, or winter cold for summer air conditioning. Storage media include water or ice-slush tanks, masses of native earth or bedrock accessed with heat exchangers by means of boreholes, deep aquifers contained between impermeable strata; shallow, lined pits filled with gravel and water and insulated at the top, as well as eutectic solutions and phase-change materials.
Microgeneration is the small-scale production of heat or electric power from a "low carbon source," as an alternative or supplement to traditional centralized grid-connected power.
Solar air conditioning, or "solar-powered air conditioning", refers to any air conditioning (cooling) system that uses solar power.
A gas-fired power plant, sometimes referred to as gas-fired power station, natural gas power plant, or methane gas power plant, is a thermal power station that burns natural gas to generate electricity. Gas-fired power plants generate almost a quarter of world electricity and are significant sources of greenhouse gas emissions. However, they can provide seasonal, dispatchable energy generation to compensate for variable renewable energy deficits, where hydropower or interconnectors are not available. In the early 2020s batteries became competitive with gas peaker plants.
In thermal engineering, the organic Rankine cycle (ORC) is a type of thermodynamic cycle. It is a variation of the Rankine cycle named for its use of an organic, high-molecular-mass fluid whose vaporization temperature is lower than that of water. The fluid allows heat recovery from lower-temperature sources such as biomass combustion, industrial waste heat, geothermal heat, solar ponds etc. The low-temperature heat is converted into useful work, that can itself be converted into electricity.
Concentrated solar power systems generate solar power by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight into a receiver. Electricity is generated when the concentrated light is converted to heat, which drives a heat engine connected to an electrical power generator or powers a thermochemical reaction.
A waste heat recovery unit (WHRU) is an energy recovery heat exchanger that transfers heat from process outputs at high temperature to another part of the process for some purpose, usually increased efficiency. The WHRU is a tool involved in cogeneration. Waste heat may be extracted from sources such as hot flue gases from a diesel generator, steam from cooling towers, or even waste water from cooling processes such as in steel cooling.
Photovoltaic thermal collectors, typically abbreviated as PVT collectors and also known as hybrid solar collectors, photovoltaic thermal solar collectors, PV/T collectors or solar cogeneration systems, are power generation technologies that convert solar radiation into usable thermal and electrical energy. PVT collectors combine photovoltaic solar cells, which convert sunlight into electricity, with a solar thermal collector, which transfers the otherwise unused waste heat from the PV module to a heat transfer fluid. By combining electricity and heat generation within the same component, these technologies can reach a higher overall efficiency than solar photovoltaic (PV) or solar thermal (T) alone.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to solar energy:
Cryogenic energy storage (CES) is the use of low temperature (cryogenic) liquids such as liquid air or liquid nitrogen to store energy. The technology is primarily used for the large-scale storage of electricity. Following grid-scale demonstrator plants, a 250 MWh commercial plant is now under construction in the UK, and a 400 MWh store is planned in the USA.
Power-to-X are electricity conversion, energy storage, and reconversion pathways from surplus renewable energy. Power-to-X conversion technologies allow for the decoupling of power from the electricity sector for use in other sectors, possibly using power that has been provided by additional investments in generation. The term is widely used in Germany and may have originated there.
The Lamm-Honigmann process is a storage and heat to power conversion process that consists of using the effect of vapor pressure depression of a working fluid mixture compared to a pure working fluid of that mixture. This process is named after their independent inventors Emile Lamm and Moritz Honigmann. Both inventors envisioned and realized the same process principle for usage as energy storage in so-called Fireless locomotive but with different working fluid pairs: Emile Lamm used ammonia and water, Moritz Honigmann used water and caustic soda.