Coinfection

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Coinfection
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Specialty Infectious disease

Coinfection is the simultaneous infection of a host by multiple pathogen species. In virology, coinfection includes simultaneous infection of a single cell by two or more virus particles. An example is the coinfection of liver cells with hepatitis B virus and hepatitis D virus, which can arise incrementally by initial infection followed by superinfection.[ citation needed ]

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Global prevalence or incidence of coinfection among humans is unknown, but it is thought to be commonplace, [1] sometimes more common than single infection. [2] Coinfection with helminths affects around 800 million people worldwide. [3]

Coinfection is of particular human health importance because pathogen species can interact within the host. The net effect of coinfection on human health is thought to be negative. [4] Interactions can have either positive or negative effects on other parasites. Under positive parasite interactions, disease transmission and progression are enhanced and this is also known as syndemism. Negative parasite interactions include microbial interference when one bacterial species suppresses the virulence or colonisation of other bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa suppressing pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus colony formation. [5] The general patterns of ecological interactions between parasite species are unknown, even among common coinfections such as those between sexually transmitted infections. [6] However, network analysis of a food web of coinfection in humans suggests that there is greater potential for interactions via shared food sources than via the immune system. [7]

A globally common coinfection involves tuberculosis and HIV. In some countries, up to 80% of tuberculosis patients are also HIV-positive. [8] The potential for dynamics of these two infectious diseases to be linked has been known for decades. [9] Other common examples of coinfections are AIDS, which involves coinfection of end-stage HIV with opportunistic parasites [10] and polymicrobial infections like Lyme disease with other diseases. [11] Coinfections sometimes can epitomize a zero sum game of bodily resources, and precise viral quantitation demonstrates children co-infected with rhinovirus and respiratory syncytial virus, metapneumovirus or parainfluenza virus have lower nasal viral loads than those with rhinovirus alone. [12]

Poliovirus

Poliovirus is a positive single-stranded RNA virus in the family Picornaviridae . Coinfections appear to be common and several pathways have been identified for transmitting multiple virions to a single host cell. [13] These include transmission by virion aggregates, transmission of viral genomes within membrane vesicles, and transmission by bacteria bound by several viral particles. [ citation needed ]

Drake demonstrated that poliovirus is able to undergo multiplicity reactivation. [14] That is, when polioviruses were irradiated with UV light and allowed to undergo multiple infections of host cells, viable progeny could be formed even at UV doses that inactivated the virus in single infections. Poliovirus can undergo genetic recombination when at least two viral genomes are present in the same host cell. Kirkegaard and Baltimore [15] presented evidence that RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) catalyzes recombination by a copy choice mechanism in which the RdRP switches between (+)ssRNA templates during negative strand synthesis. Recombination in RNA viruses appears to be an adaptive mechanism for transmitting an undamaged genome to virus progeny. [16] [17]

Examples

See also

Related Research Articles

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A human pathogen is a pathogen that causes disease in humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zoonosis</span> Disease that can be transmitted from other species to humans

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Infection</span> Invasion of an organisms body by pathogenic agents

An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable disease, is an illness resulting from an infection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poliovirus</span> Enterovirus

Poliovirus, the causative agent of polio, is a serotype of the species Enterovirus C, in the family of Picornaviridae. There are three poliovirus serotypes: types 1, 2, and 3.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Picornavirus</span> Family of viruses

Picornaviruses are a group of related nonenveloped RNA viruses which infect vertebrates including fish, mammals, and birds. They are viruses that represent a large family of small, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses with a 30 nm icosahedral capsid. The viruses in this family can cause a range of diseases including the common cold, poliomyelitis, meningitis, hepatitis, and paralysis.

<i>Enterovirus</i> Genus of viruses

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subclinical infection</span> Nearly or completely asymptomatic infection

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HIV superinfection is a condition in which a person with an established human immunodeficiency virus infection acquires a second strain of HIV, often of a different subtype. These can form a recombinant strain that co-exists with the strain from the initial infection, as well from reinfection with a new virus strain, and may cause more rapid disease progression or carry multiple resistances to certain HIV medications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vincent Racaniello</span> American biologist

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Introduction to viruses</span> Non-technical introduction to viruses

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Virus</span> Infectious agent that replicates in cells

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Host switch</span> Evolutionary change of the host specificity of a parasite or pathogen

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References

  1. ↑ Cox, FE (2001). "Concomitant infections, parasites and immune responses" (PDF). Parasitology. 122. Suppl: S23–38. doi:10.1017/s003118200001698x. PMID   11442193. S2CID   150432.
  2. ↑ Petney, TN; Andrews, RH (1998). "Multiparasite communities in animals and humans: frequency, structure and pathogenic significance". International Journal for Parasitology. 28 (3): 377–93. doi:10.1016/S0020-7519(97)00189-6. PMID   9559357.
  3. ↑ Crompton, DW (1999). "How much human helminthiasis is there in the world?". The Journal of Parasitology. 85 (3): 397–403. doi:10.2307/3285768. JSTOR   3285768. PMID   10386428.
  4. ↑ Griffiths, EC; Pedersen, ABP; Fenton, A; Petchey, OP (2011). "The nature and consequences of coinfection in humans". Journal of Infection . 63 (3): 200–206. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2011.06.005. PMC   3430964 . PMID   21704071.
  5. ↑ Hoffman, L. R.; Deziel, E.; D'argenio, D. A.; Lepine, F.; Emerson, J.; McNamara, S.; Gibson, R. L.; Ramsey, B. W.; Miller, S. I. (2006). "Selection for Staphylococcus aureus small-colony variants due to growth in the presence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (52): 19890–5. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10319890H. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0606756104 . PMC   1750898 . PMID   17172450.
  6. ↑ Shrestha, S. (2011). "Influence of host genetic and ecological factors in complex concomitant infections – relevance to sexually transmitted infections". Journal of Reproductive Immunology. 92 (1–2): 27–32. doi:10.1016/j.jri.2011.09.001. PMID   22019002.
  7. ↑ Griffiths, E.; Pedersen, A.; Fenton, A.; Petchey, O. (2014). "Analysis of a summary network of co-infection in humans reveals that parasites interact most via shared resources". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 281 (1782): 20132286. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.2286. PMC   3973251 . PMID   24619434.
  8. ↑ "Tuberculosis and HIV". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on July 21, 2006.
  9. ↑ Di Perri, G; Cruciani, M; Danzi, MC; Luzzati, R; De Checchi, G; Malena, M; Pizzighella, S; Mazzi, R; et al. (1989). "Nosocomial epidemic of active tuberculosis among HIV-infected patients". Lancet. 2 (8678–8679): 1502–4. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(89)92942-5. PMID   2574778. S2CID   5608415.
  10. ↑ Lawn, SD (2004). "AIDS in Africa: the impact of coinfections on the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection". Journal of Infection . 48 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2003.09.001. PMID   14667787.
  11. ↑ Mitchell, PD; Reed, KD; Hofkes, JM (1996). "Immunoserologic evidence of coinfection with Borrelia burgdorferi, Babesia microti, and human granulocytic Ehrlichia species in residents of Wisconsin and Minnesota". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 34 (3): 724–7. doi:10.1128/JCM.34.3.724-727.1996. PMC   228878 . PMID   8904446.
  12. ↑ Waghmare, A; Strelitz, B; Lacombe, K; Perchetti, GA; Nalla, A; Rha, B; Midgley, C; Lively, JY; Klein, EJ; Kuypers, J; Englund, JA (2019). "Rhinovirus in Children Presenting to the Emergency Department: Role of Viral Load in Disease Severity and Co-Infections". Open Forum Infectious Diseases. 6 (10): S915–S916. doi: 10.1093/ofid/ofz360.2304 . PMC   6810026 .
  13. ↑ Aguilera ER, Pfeiffer JK. Strength in numbers: Mechanisms of viral co-infection. Virus Res. 2019;265:43-46. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2019.03.003
  14. ↑ Drake JW (August 1958). "Interference and multiplicity reactivation in polioviruses". Virology. 6 (1): 244–64. doi:10.1016/0042-6822(58)90073-4. PMID   13581529.
  15. ↑ Kirkegaard K, Baltimore D (November 1986). "The mechanism of RNA recombination in poliovirus". Cell. 47 (3): 433–43. doi:10.1016/0092-8674(86)90600-8. PMC   7133339 . PMID   3021340.
  16. ↑ Barr JN, Fearns R (June 2010). "How RNA viruses maintain their genome integrity". The Journal of General Virology. 91 (Pt 6): 1373–87. doi: 10.1099/vir.0.020818-0 . PMID   20335491.
  17. ↑ Bernstein H, Bernstein C, Michod RE (January 2018). "Sex in microbial pathogens". Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 57: 8–25. doi: 10.1016/j.meegid.2017.10.024 . PMID   29111273.
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