The Coral Triangle and countries participating in the Coral Triangle Initiative
Covering 1.62% of the planet's total Ocean area, there is broad scientific consensus that the CT represents the global epicenter of marine life abundance and diversity. This region has 76% of all known coral species, 37% of all known coral reef fish species, 53% of the world's coral reefs, and the largest extent of mangrove forests in the world. It also includes spawning and juvenile growth areas for the world's largest tuna fishery plus a spawning and nursery ground for six species of threatened marine turtles, endangered fish, and cetaceans such as tuna and blue whales.
Biogeography conditions within the CT may also enable this region to maintain its high productivity despite future climate change impacts. It potentially becomes the world's most important "refuge" for marine life. The natural productivity of the region makes it unique for its wildlife plus marine and coastal Ecosystems enhancing derived human lifestyle benefits for both local communities and governments.[4]
Marine and Coastal Living Resources
Unparalleled marine and coastal living resources provide major benefits to the approximately 363 million people who reside in the Coral Triangle. As a source of vital food, income and viable protection from severe weather events, the sustainable health of these ecosystems is critical.
These vital resources are under significant and increasing threat. The Coral Triangle sits at a crossroads of rapidly expanding populations, economic growth, and international trade. Fish and other marine resources are a principal source of income, food, livelihoods, and export revenues in all CT countries. Tuna which live on reef fish and shrimp help to feed a fast-growing demand in Japan, the US, Europe, China, and elsewhere.
Threats from local sources include: over-fishing, and destructive fishing (such as blast fishing and poison fishing), followed by watershed-based pollution (including excessive soil and nutrient runoff), coastal habitat conversion resulting from coastal development (including loss of mangrove and seagrass habitats), marine-based pollution, and exploitation of threatened species (including for the aquarium fish trade).[5][6]
The current status of the resources across this region plus future projections, remains of great concern, although data shows the reefs of the Coral Triangle hves showm resilience to large scale bleaching events. The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) reported in 2021, that the East Asian Seas region, which includes the Coral Triangle, was the only region where coral cover was substantially greater in 2019 (36.8%) as compared to 1983 (32.8%), which is the year that the earliest data was collected. This increase in coral cover occurred notwithstanding the reefs were affected by large scale coral bleaching events during the 2010s. The data on the cover of algae in the East Asian Seas shows that the cover of algae has progressively decreased resulting in an average of five times more coral than algae on these reefs.[7]
Establishment
Viewing it necessary to safeguard the region's marine and coastal resources, Indonesian President Yudhoyono convinced other leaders in the region to launch the Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries and Food Security (CTI-CFF) in 2009. The CTI-CFF is a multilateral partnership between the governments of Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Solomon Islands and Timor-Leste (the ‘CT6’).
Six Heads of States/Governments signed the CTI Declaration in Indonesia on May 15, 2009
At the Leader's Summit in 2009, these governments agreed to adopt a 10-year CTI-CFF Regional Plan of Action (CTI RPOA) to safeguard the region's marine and coastal biological resources.
Through the CTI-CFF, the Coral Triangle countries have agreed to support people-centered biodiversity conservation, sustainable development, poverty reduction and equitable benefit sharing.
The CTI-CFF also seeks to address both poverty reduction through economic development, food security, sustainable livelihoods for coastal communities and biodiversity conservation through the protection of species, habitats and ecosystems.
5 Goals of Regional Plan of Action
The plan of action of the CTI-CFF, is to achieve the following:[9][10]
Priority seascapes designated and effectively managed
Ecosystem Approach to Management of Fisheries (EAFM) and other marine resources fully applied
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) established and effectively managed
The longer-term goals of the CTI-CFF are to:[11][12]
Stabilize and/or maintain coral reef ecosystem integrity and services
Improve and sustain fish stocks
Improve the affordability, availability, quality, and safety of food coming from coastal and marine environments
Regional Secretariat
The Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries and Food Security (CTI-CFF) Regional Secretariat was created during the First CTI-CFF Senior Officials Meeting in Bali during December 2007.
It mandates promoting regional cooperation, sharing lessons learned plus facilitating leadership learning across the six Coral Triangle countries - Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Solomon Islands and Timor-Leste.
Main activities cover the following areas: organizational development, outreach and communication, regional coordination and mechanisms, technical and thematic working groups, development of key regional reports, and capacity development. It also serves as the main liaison and for all CTI-CFF official functions such as the bi-annual CTI-CFF Senior Officials Meetings and the annual CTI-CFF Ministerial Meetings. The CTI-CFF Regional Secretariat Headquarters are based in Manado, North Sulawesi, Indonesia.
Geographic scope for implementation of the Plan of Action
The CTI-CFF Plan of Action may be implemented within waters under national jurisdiction of each of the Coral Triangle governments, in accordance with their rights and obligations pursuant to international laws and the prevailing laws, rules and regulations of each country.
Applying scope of the CTI is without prejudice to the sovereign rights of the parties over marine resources within each national jurisdiction, or upon the legal position of each party on delimitating maritime boundaries between States with opposite or adjacent coasts. The geographic scope of CTI implementation is not intended in any way to redraw the scientific boundaries of the Coral Triangle which are defined by coral and coral reef fish diversity.
Seascape General Model
In 2017, the CTI-CFF announced the Seascape General Model, which is statement of a management approach, to assist the CTI-CFF in building a consistent regional framework for sustainable management and a platform for future investment for Priority Seascapes at the regional and national level.[13] Marine biogeographic areas or regions have different descriptions depending on the management approach applied:
Large marine ecosystems (LMEs) are global units for resource management, which built on the Regional Seas Program of United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in the 1990s.
Ecoregions mean large areas for a representation approach to conserving biodiversity terminology used by World Wildlife Fund (WWF).
Seascapes means large multiple-use geographies of biological and ecological importance with emphasis on multi-sectoral and multi-level governance and coalition building approach, which terminology was used by Conservation International (CI).[14]
In the CTI-CFF Seascape General Model, a ‘seascape’ is:
“a geographic area where multiple uses and sectors, as well as multiple management designations and governance mechanisms, can be integrated and coordinated. The area is often ecologically valued, politically relevant and logistically practical to manage, and can serve multiple purposes, such as fishing, tourism, recreation, and protection from some of the effects of climate change … Functionally, seascapes provide a platform to coordinate the various policies, laws, and regulations within the marine space such as navigation, fishing, mining, and traditional and cultural uses”.[13]
The CTI-CFF Seascape General Model is also intended to facilitate “triple bottom line benefits (economic, social and environmental), that together exceed the benefits arising from marine resource management alone”.[13]
In the CTI-CFF Seascape General Model, ‘Priority Seascapes’ are those seascapes, which can be trans-boundary and/or national, that have been evaluated based on the criteria for the designation of Priority Seascapes by the Committee of Senior Officials (CSO) and Council of Ministers (COM) of the CTI-CFF.[15] There are 7 criteria for the designation of Priority Seascapes, the first of which involves the demonstration of high values in at least three of the following:[15]
Ecological significance (Examples: Ecologically or Biologically Significant Areas (EBSA), Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA), migratory routes, nesting sites for sea turtles, etc.)
Biological productivity
Economic (existing or potential)
Cultural / heritage values
Resilience
The remaining criteria assess factors relating to aspects of the socio-cultural values, political will, stakeholder support and engagement, economic opportunity (which may include collaboration and partnership, financial support, etc.) to move the process of creating a seascape forward; and also that a seascape has data and information available and accessible for decision making.[15]
The case study provided in the CTI-CFF Seascape General Model (2017) is the Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME) is a semi-enclosed large marine ecosystem that encompasses Indonesia, Malaysia and Philippines that was established following the ecoregion approach – the terminology used by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) to mean large areas for a representation approach to conserving biodiversity.[16] Following its recognition as a Priority Seascape under the Regional Plan of Action of the CTI-CFF, the SSME was renamed as the Sulu-Sulawesi Seascape. Although, the existing SSME initiatives, such as Marine Protected Area (MPA) networks for migratory marine turtles and ecosystem approach to fisheries, with climate change components, continue under the CTI-CFF Framework, as CTI-CFF Sulu-Sulawesi Seascape projects.[16]
The CTI-CFF Seascape General Model (2017) provides “a general model for the sustainable management of seascapes” for other marine biogeographic areas or regions in the Coral Triangle.[17]
As of 2022, CTI-CFF have endorsed a total three Priority Seascapes (Sulu Sulawesi Seascape, Bismarck Solomon Seas Ecoregion and Lesser Sunda).[18]
Regional Plan of Action (RPOA) 2.0 (2021-2030)
In 2009, a 10-year Regional Plan of Action (RPOA 1.0) was developed for the CTI-CFF. In 2022 the follow-on Regional Plan of Action was published as RPOA 2.0, which set 2 goals (as well as objectives, targets, activities and expected outcomes).[19][20]
The 2 objectives were summarised as:
“The 1st goal is, by 2025, coastal communities and the coastal and marine ecosystems are enabled to cope with the impacts of climate change, natural and anthropogenic threats, in the Coral Triangle region. And the 2nd goal, by 2030, coastal communities and the coastal and marine ecosystems in the CT region are more resilient/able to adapt to impacts of climate change, natural and anthropogenic threats, by improving food security, sustainable fisheries and coastal livelihoods.”[21]
The Philippine Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean east of the Philippine Archipelago and the largest sea in the world, occupying an estimated surface area of 5 million square kilometers. The Philippine Sea Plate forms the floor of the sea. Its western border is the first island chain to the west, comprising the Ryukyu Islands in the northwest and Taiwan in the west. Its southwestern border comprises the Philippine islands of Luzon, Catanduanes, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao. Its northern border comprises the Japanese islands of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyūshū. Its eastern border is the second island chain to the east, comprising the Bonin Islands and Iwo Jima in the northeast, the Mariana Islands in the due east, and Halmahera, Palau, Yap and Ulithi in the southeast. Its southern border is Indonesia's Morotai Island.
Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world's marine ecosystems. They serve many functions, such as forming the livelihood for subsistence fishermen and even function as jewelry and construction materials. Corals inhabit coastal waters off of every continent except Antarctica, with an abundance of reefs residing along Southeast Asian coastline in several countries including Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand. Coral reefs are developed by the carbonate-based skeletons of a variety of animals and algae. Slowly and over time, the reefs build up to the surface in oceans. Coral reefs are found in shallow, warm salt water. The sunlight filters through clear water and allows microscopic organisms to live and reproduce. Coral reefs are actually composed of tiny, fragile animals known as coral polyps. Coral reefs are significantly important because of the biodiversity. Although the number of fish are decreasing, the remaining coral reefs contain more unique sea creatures. The variety of species living on a coral reef is greater than anywhere else in the world. An estimation of 70-90% of fish caught are dependent on coral reefs in Southeast Asia and reefs support over 25% of all known marine species. However, those sensitive coral reefs are facing detrimental effects on them due to variety of factors: overfishing, sedimentation and pollution, bleaching, and even tourist-related damage.
Blast fishing, fish bombing, dynamite fishing or grenade fishing is a destructive fishing practice using explosives to stun or kill schools of fish for easy collection. This often illegal practice is extremely destructive to the surrounding ecosystem, as the explosion often destroys the underlying habitat that supports the fish. The frequently improvised nature of the explosives used, and undetonated charges, means danger for fishermen and divers as well, with accidents and injuries.
Marine conservation, also known as ocean conservation, is the protection and preservation of ecosystems in oceans and seas through planned management in order to prevent the over-exploitation of these marine resources. Marine conservation is informed by the study of marine plants and animal resources and ecosystem functions and is driven by response to the manifested negative effects seen in the environment such as species loss, habitat degradation and changes in ecosystem functions and focuses on limiting human-caused damage to marine ecosystems, restoring damaged marine ecosystems, and preserving vulnerable species and ecosystems of the marine life. Marine conservation is a relatively new discipline which has developed as a response to biological issues such as extinction and marine habitats change.
The Ningaloo Coast is a World Heritage Site located in the north west coastal region of Western Australia. The 705,015-hectare (1,742,130-acre) heritage-listed area is located approximately 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) north of Perth, along the East Indian Ocean. The distinctive Ningaloo Reef that fringes the Ningaloo Coast is 260 kilometres (160 mi) long and is Australia's largest fringing coral reef and the only large reef positioned very close to a landmass. The Muiron Islands and Cape Farquhar are within this coastal zone.
A Sustainable habitat is an ecosystem that produces food and shelter for people and other organisms, without resource depletion and in such a way that no external waste is produced. Thus the habitat can continue into the future tie without external infusions of resources. Such a sustainable habitat may evolve naturally or be produced under the influence of man. A sustainable habitat that is created and designed by human intelligence will mimic nature, if it is to be successful. Everything within it is connected to a complex array of organisms, physical resources, and functions. Organisms from many different biomes can be brought together to fulfill various ecological niches.
Unsustainable fishing methods refers to the utilization of the various fishing methods in order to capture or harvest fish at a rate which sees the declining of fish populations over time. These methods are observed to facilitate the destructive fishing practices that destroy ecosystems within the ocean, and more readily results in overfishing, the depletion of fish populations at a rate that cannot be sustained.
Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems and exist in waters that have a high salt content. These systems contrast with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover more than 70% of the surface of the Earth and account for more than 97% of Earth's water supply and 90% of habitable space on Earth. Seawater has an average salinity of 35 parts per thousand of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine ecosystems. Marine ecosystems can be divided into many zones depending upon water depth and shoreline features. The oceanic zone is the vast open part of the ocean where animals such as whales, sharks, and tuna live. The benthic zone consists of substrates below water where many invertebrates live. The intertidal zone is the area between high and low tides. Other near-shore (neritic) zones can include mudflats, seagrass meadows, mangroves, rocky intertidal systems, salt marshes, coral reefs, lagoons. In the deep water, hydrothermal vents may occur where chemosynthetic sulfur bacteria form the base of the food web.
The Joint Ocean Commission Initiative is a bipartisan, collaborative group in the United States that aims to "accelerate the pace of change that results in meaningful ocean policy reform." The Joint Initiative was established by the members of two major U.S.-based oceans commissions: the Pew Oceans Commission and the United States Commission on Ocean Policy. It was originally co-chaired by former White House Chief of Staff Leon Panetta and former Chief of Naval Operations Admiral James D. Watkins, chairs of the Pew and U.S. Ocean Commissions, respectively. Currently, the Joint Initiative is led by a Leadership Council, which is co-chaired by Christine Todd Whitman, former EPA Administrator under President George W. Bush and former governor of New Jersey, and Norman Y. Mineta, Secretary of Commerce under President Bill Clinton and Secretary of Transportation under President George W. Bush.
A wild fishery is a natural body of water with a sizeable free-ranging fish or other aquatic animal population that can be harvested for its commercial value. Wild fisheries can be marine (saltwater) or lacustrine/riverine (freshwater), and rely heavily on the carrying capacity of the local aquatic ecosystem.
The Coral Triangle (CT) is a roughly triangular area in the tropical waters around the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Timor-Leste. This area contains at least 500 species of reef-building corals in each ecoregion. The Coral Triangle is located between the Pacific and Indian oceans and encompasses portions of two biogeographic regions: the Indonesian-Philippines Region, and the Far Southwestern Pacific Region. As one of eight major coral reef zones in the world, the Coral Triangle is recognized as a global centre of marine biodiversity and a global priority for conservation. Its biological resources make it a global hotspot of marine biodiversity. Known as the "Amazon of the seas", it covers 5.7 million square kilometres (2,200,000 sq mi) of ocean waters. It contains more than 76% of the world's shallow-water reef-building coral species, 37% of its reef fish species, 50% of its razor clam species, six out of seven of the world's sea turtle species, and the world's largest mangrove forest. In 2014, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) reported that the gross domestic product of the marine ecosystem in the Coral Triangle is roughly $1.2 trillion per year and provides food to over 120 million people. According to the Coral Triangle Knowledge Network, the region annually brings in about $3 billion in foreign exchange income from fisheries exports, and another $3 billion from coastal tourism revenues.
Defying Ocean's End (DOE) is a global agenda for action in marine conservation compiled in a 2004 Island Press book. It is also the title of a 2003 Los Cabos (Mexico) conference, where the agenda was formulated.
The World Ocean Conference 2009 (WOC) was an international conference to develop a common understanding and firm commitment to address the adverse impact of climate change on the state of the world's oceans, and increase understanding on the role of the oceans as ‘climate moderator’. This conference includes diplomats and heads of state from a number of countries. It took place in May 2009 in Manado, Indonesia. Its topic is the threat to various nations from rising oceans due to global warming.
Fisheries are affected by climate change in many ways: marine aquatic ecosystems are being affected by rising ocean temperatures, ocean acidification and ocean deoxygenation, while freshwater ecosystems are being impacted by changes in water temperature, water flow, and fish habitat loss. These effects vary in the context of each fishery. Climate change is modifying fish distributions and the productivity of marine and freshwater species. Climate change is expected to lead to significant changes in the availability and trade of fish products. The geopolitical and economic consequences will be significant, especially for the countries most dependent on the sector. The biggest decreases in maximum catch potential can be expected in the tropics, mostly in the South Pacific regions.
Living Oceans Society is a Canadian environmental organization that has been a leader in the effort to protect Canada's oceans since 1998. It is based in Sointula, British Columbia, with a satellite office in Vancouver, British Columbia. Living Oceans Society's vision states that: "Canada's oceans are sustainably managed and thriving with abundant sea life that supports vibrant and resilient communities."
Blue Ventures is a registered charity focused on nurturing locally led marine conservation. The organisation partners with coastal communities that depend on marine resources.
The Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (WPRFMC) is one of eight regional councils established under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSA) in 1976 to manage offshore fisheries. The WPRFMC's jurisdiction includes the US exclusive economic zone (EEZ) waters around the State of Hawaii; US Territories of American Samoa and Guam; the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI); and the US Pacific remote island areas of Johnston, Midway, Palmyra and Wake Atolls; Baker, Howland and Jarvis Islands; and Kingman Reef. This area of nearly 1.5 million square miles is the size of the continental United States and constitutes about half of the entire US EEZ. It spans both sides of the equator and both sides of the dateline. The WPRFMC also manages domestic fisheries based in the US Pacific Islands that operate on the high seas.
The Coral Triangle Day was established on June 9, to celebrate and raise awareness of the ocean conservation and protection, especially on the Coral Triangle, the world's epicenter of marine biodiversity. Intended as an open-sourced event, the day is celebrated by individuals, organizations, and establishment concerned on the Coral Triangle. The Coral Triangle day was observed the first time on June 9, 2012, in conjunction with the World Oceans Day on June 8.
Coral Reef Conservation Program (CRCP) is a partnership between National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) agencies, established in 2000. The program is a multidisciplinary approach, initiated by the NOAA, to managing and understanding coral reef ecosystems through research and the publication of data to support relevant partners involved in coral reef restoration.
A marine coastal ecosystem is a marine ecosystem which occurs where the land meets the ocean. Marine coastal ecosystems include many very different types of marine habitats, each with their own characteristics and species composition. They are characterized by high levels of biodiversity and productivity.
1 2 Lauretta Burke; Kathleen Reytar; Mark Spalding; Allison Perry (13 July 2012). Reefs at Risk Revisited in the Coral Triangle (Report). World Resources Institute (WRI) in collaboration with the USAID Coral Triangle Support Partnership (CTSP), a consortium of WWF, The Nature Conservancy, and Conservation International.
↑ Edited by: David Souter, Serge Planes, Jérémy Wicquart, Murray Logan, David Obura and Francis Staub (2021). Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2020 Executive Summary(PDF) (Report). Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN). p.19.{{cite report}}: |author1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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