Ctenophorus parviceps, commonly known as the Gnaraloo heath dragon[2][3] or northwestern heath dragon[4] is a species of agamid lizard occurring in pale coastal sands and shell grit with open heaths and beach spinifex, between the North West Cape and Carnarvon, Western Australia and on Bernier Island.[4] The Gnaraloo heath dragon (Ctenophorus parviceps) is a lizard that can be found along the coast of Western Australia between Exmouth Gulf and Shark Bay,[5] and is also known as the northwestern heath dragon.[6] It is native to Australia and usually inhabits sandy coastal dunes. The species' longevity is 3–50 years and its population density is extremely low.[7] The Gnaraloo heath dragon is a member of the Agamidae family, which contains 15 genera. The lizard is under the Ctenophorus genus which has up to 33 species.[8] This genus shows the most morphological and ecological diversity out of the three large agamid genera. 83% of the lizards in this genus lack a crest, while 17% possess crests.[7] They are smaller than most agamids but do have relatively large heads. The Gnaraloo heath dragon can be differentiated from related species by a series of spines on the tail's base, a pale-grey brown broad vertebral band along its back, and hour-glass bars extending upwards to meet the pale vertebral band. It is usually 45mm in terms of length, measuring from snout to vent.[9]
The Gnaraloo heath dragon is a relatively slender lizard with a small head and a neck narrower than its head. Its flanks and sides are darker brown and its scales are strongly keeled. The hindlimb is roughly 70% of the snout-vent length and the tail is about 150%.[9] The body shape of this terrestrial lizard, like the rest of its taxa, is made for fast movement and foraging open areas.[10]
The Gnaraloo heath dragon has a dark pattern and numerous pores, usually 24–36.[11] Male and female lizards can be distinguished by the number of pores. Males have 8-10 pre-anal pores and females have 16-25 femoral pores.[9] Within the Ctenophorus genus, each species' male and female lizards can also be distinguished by colour patterns. Intricate patterns are found more in males as these patterns correlate with selection for male sexual signals.[12] Their colour also often varies with age, seasonal or temperate changes.[13]
It is a terrestrial diurnal reptile and occupies hummock grassland, low open shrubland, tall shrubland and sandy coastal dunes. Most Ctenophorus lizards do not burrow to retreat, but instead retreat to rock crevices.[14] The Gnaraloo heath dragon reproduces via oviparity. This process, egg-laying, is an inherited mode of reproduction for all vertebrates.[15] Although its population density is exceptionally low, the longevity of the species is average and 15 species in the Ctenophorus genus are only believed to be imperiled rather than endangered. The Ctenophorus parviceps is not listed for conservation concern, but is threatened by habitat loss and degradation, climate change, death on roads, feral predators, cane toads, and emerging diseases.[16]
Distribution and habitat
The species of Gnaraloo heath dragon are mostly found in Southwestern Australia - along the coast between Exmouth Gulf and Shark Bay - within Canavron Bay. Western Australia's coastal areas are known for its biodiversity and as a fast growing urban and agricultural region. However, the distribution of the Ctenophorus parviceps in the North of Shark Bay has led to its geographical isolation. This species is geographically limited by the sandy region along the coast which runs up until the Northwest Cape.[17] The sandy region reduces the distribution of reptile and frog species that are equipped for sandy terrains.
The sandy dunes of Western Australia have temperate mediterranean climate. The relatively damp and island-like refuge is surrounded by ocean and dry lands.[17] Western heath dragons are small but specialists of this terrestrial habitat. Although there is a possibility that this lizard species is not only endemic to south-western Australia, their particularity in habitat has separated them from related species in other regions.[17] They are an eminent component of the Western Australian region. They are plentiful, have detectable social behaviour and complex vivid patterns.
Taxonomy
The Gnaraloo heath dragon belongs to the Squamata order and the family Agamidae. They are included in the Ctenophorus genus which consists of 33 species. Ctenophorus lizards are powerfully built ground-dwelling creatures. These species are generally terrestrial agamids found in Australia[7] and they exhibit the fourth highest male to female ratio of relative tail lengths.[14] Each Ctenophorus species can be distinguished by 3 clear ecological characteristics: associating with rocks, digging of burrows and using vegetation as shelter.[14] Because of their terrestrial life and desert-like habitat, most of the taxa are diurnal ground lizards.
Originally, the parviceps species was under the Rankinia genus. However, studies showed how it was only distantly related and that molecular evidence indicates that Rankinia parviceps form a monophyletic genera with other Ctenophorus species. Hence, the western Rankinia have been transferred under the Ctenophorus genus.[17] The taxonomic standing of south-western Rankinia is still undetermined.
From the Western Australian Museum, Glenn Storr, mainly contributed to agamid taxonomy. His work could be seen in a variety of species, including Ctenophorus parviceps 1964.[18]
Evolution
The Ctenophorus dragon lizards of Australia is one fascinating example of continent-wide adaptive radiation.[19] Significant levels of divergence between Ctenophorus parviceps and related species can be traced back to specialisation in habitat as each species occurs in different botanical districts.[20]
Their habitat has strong effects on the evolution of limb and body form in agamid lizards. Head and limb dimension variations between dragon lizards also occur due to differing their performance traits and behaviour.[14] Terrestrial members of the Australian ctenophorus radiation have evolved different refuge-seeking strategies, including digging burrows in the sand or loose soils or hiding in areas covered by shrubs or grasses.[21] The Gnaraloo heath dragon does not burrow, instead retreats to hiding areas such as rock crevices, shrubs, grass or sleep in the open. There are relatively low rates of evolution in terms of size and shape for the rock-dwelling Ctenophorus lineages such as the Gnaraloo heath dragon. Burrowing or maneuvering through complex habitats imposes more selective demands that contribute to higher levels of diversification for ground-dwelling Ctenophorus lineages.[21]
Because of convergent evolution, similarities between amagids from various continents can be noticed. Agamids such as Pebble-mimicking dragons resemble certain species hailing from North America, Central Asia, South America and Australia.
In terms of evolution in colour patterns for the species, crypsis plays a key role. In order for Gnaraloo heath dragons to avoid detection by other animals or predators, their colour variation must adapt to their habitual background. This evolution of colour variation exhibits the necessity to avoid predation due to natural selection and discernable signalling functions to mate with other Ctenophorus parviceps lizards.[22]
Biology
Like all Ctenophorus species, they have relatively thin vascular blocks and less blood vessels in comparison to other Agamids. Their crests are used as a signal of territory. It is usually raised when taking territorial ownership then lowered once signalled.[18]
The Gnaraloo heath dragon reproduces via oviparity. This means that the lizards eject undeveloped eggs rather than live offspring. Coitus occurs as the male briefly inserts its hemipenis whilst holding the female by the neck.[18] The copulation process normally takes only about 25 seconds. Similar to some reptiles, this species lays its eggs which require maternal protection to ensure the young have properly hatched. Clutch size is largely affected by the lizard's body size. Hence, the small Gnaraloo heath dragons produce only a few eggs.[23] There is at least 6 weeks between clutches. Usually there are 1 to 2 clutches, but a third clutch is theoretically possible. In late May into winter and spring, males begin spermatocytogenesis to be fully functional until December. If a male agamid's testes are regressing, they are unlikely to die like most males in January. As for females, ovulation occurs in October so that egg laying can begin at the end of the month. Most agamids have high mortality rates in late December.[18]
The female and male lizards that survive until January have enlarged inguinal fat figures, females have regressed ovaries and males have regressed testes.[18] For many Ctenophorus populations, few adults survive to make a second summer as smaller Ctenophorus species, such as Ctenophorus parviceps, usually have a year life span.
The Gnaraloo heath dragon's bright colouration and complex patterns are key players in intersexual signalling between other lizards.[24] The reflectance of their scale patterns highly contrasts against their more dull coloured habitat. Their colouration signals receptivity, males prefer females with higher throat chroma. Gnaraloo heath dragon colouration also acts as camouflage and UV protection.
Reptiles produce non-hyperosmotic urine. In agamids, the urine travels to the cloaca and is then transported back to the colon for reabsorption to prevent water loss.[18] In terms of feeding and detecting predators, agamids depend on sight mainly for this. Their sense of smell is vital for prey detection. Typically in the breeding season, males usually utilise their femoral glands to defend and mark their territory. This in combination with their colour patterns and crests aids in the mating process of Gnaraloo heath dragons.
Most Australian agamids are heliothermic, which means they obtain their heat primarily from the sun. Gnaraloo heath dragons bask in the sun to facilitate heat uptake to be able to begin foraging or daily activities.
Threats
The Ctenophorus parviceps is not listed for conservation concern, but is threatened by habitat loss and degradation, climate change, death on roads, feral predators, cane toads, and emerging diseases.[25] Gnaraloo heath dragons retreat to rock crevices and shrublands when threatened. Its habitat is shrinking in size with 75% of native plants being cleared, this makes it more difficult for these lizards to hide from predators.
Cane toads are a highly toxic and invasive species and currently occupy more than 1 million square kilometres in Australia. They are a predominant predator for Gnaraloo heath dragons as Australian reptiles are the most affected by the cane toad invasion. 59% of agamids are at risk from these toads. Ctenophorus parviceps have low resistance to toad toxin and are not capable of eating these toads.
Small prey birds such as falcons, Australian kestrels, and other sympatric birds in the same region as the Gnaraloo heath are also a major predator. These species have effective hunting strategies such as perch hunting and hovering to be able to catch Gnaraloo heath dragons which are fast reptile prey. Because of their diurnal nature and visibility, small birds are able to catch incautious Gnaraloo heath dragons from elevated positions.[26]
Behaviour
The species has enigmatic behavioural patterns and has only been recently recognised, Hence, this has contributed to the lack of literature concerning their ecology, biology and natural history. Lizards are not known for emitting vocal sounds. It is a rarity for a lizard species to make noises. Most Ctenophorus species are territorial and defend their areas from rocks or termite mounds. However, many Ctenophorus lizards communicate through head-bobbing as it is a determinant of species.[18]
Relationship with humans
Their behaviour limits their relationship with humans. Although most lizards would be interesting and easy to care for, all native reptiles in Australia, such as the Gnaraloo heath dragon, are protected. Hence, these reptiles cannot be taken from the wild or kept in captivity.
Related Research Articles
Agamidae is a family of over 550 species of iguanian lizards indigenous to Africa, Asia, Australia, and a few in Southern Europe. Many species are commonly called dragons or dragon lizards.
Ctenophorus is a genus of lizards, commonly known as comb-bearing dragons, found in Australia. They are in the dragon lizard family, known as Agamidae.
Rankinia is a genus of small agamid reptiles. As currently delineated, it is monotypic, containing only Rankinia diemensis, also known as the mountain heath dragon or mountain dragon. It is endemic to Australia.
The thorny devil, also known commonly as the mountain devil, thorny lizard, thorny dragon, and moloch, is a species of lizard in the family Agamidae. The species is endemic to Australia. It is the sole species in the genus Moloch. It grows up to 21 cm (8.3 in) in total length, with females generally larger than males.
Ctenophorus reticulatus, the western netted dragon or western netted ground-dragon, is a species of lizard in the family Agamidae. It is found in South Australia, Western Australia and southern Northern Territory.
Ctenophorus maculosus, commonly known as the Lake Eyre dragon or salt-lake ground-dragon, is a species of agamid lizard endemic to South Australia. C. maculosus mainly inhabits the edges of salt lakes in South Australia, from which its common names are derived. It survives in this harsh habitat through adaptive mechanisms to tolerate high temperatures and lack of free water. The female C. maculosus possesses unique male rejection techniques which are currently the focus of further research.
The central netted dragon or central netted ground dragon is a species of agamid lizard occurring in a wide range of arid to semiarid regions of Australia. It is widespread across the continent, commonly found in open, sandy, desert habitats. It is a popular pet and can often be found in zoos.
Ctenophorus pictus, commonly known as the painted ground-dragon or painted dragon, is a species of lizard from the family Agamidae. It is endemic to the drier areas of southern and central Australia.
The Barrier Range dragon is an agamid lizard which has been newly described (2013) as a separate species from the tawny dragon. This species is endemic to Australia, restricted to just three sites in western New South Wales (NSW).
Diporiphora winneckei, also known commonly as the canegrass dragon, canegrass two-line dragon, blue-lined dragon, and Winnecke's two-pored dragon, is a species of small, terrestrial, diurnal lizard in the family Agamidae. The species is endemic to Australia. It is found throughout arid zones of Australia and is also a common house pet.
Ctenophorus fionni, also known commonly as the Arcoona rock dragon, the peninsula crevice-dragon and the peninsula dragon, is a species of lizard in the family Agamidae. The species is endemic to the Australian state of South Australia.
Ctenophorus decresii, also known commonly as the tawny dragon or the tawny crevice-dragon, is a species of lizard in the family Agamidae. The species is endemic to Australia. The average snout-to-vent length (SVL) of the species is 80.76 mm (3.180 in) with larger individuals being around 89 mm (3.5 in) and smaller individuals around 72 mm (2.8 in). The optimal time for mating in this species is two to three weeks after the females emerge from hibernation. Eggs are typically laid from September to October with most of them being laid earlier in the period. C. decresii is known for its variations in throat colours which change based on environmental conditions. Its primary food sources consist of both vegetation and invertebrates, and it prefers to live in rocky habitats.
The gibber earless dragon also known as the smooth-snouted earless dragon, is a species of agamid lizard endemic to Australia. It is one of a documented species of the genus Tympanocryptis, a group of small terrestrial lizards that feed off invertebrates and are characterised by the absence of an external ear structure.
The Mallee military dragon, also commonly known as the Mallee dragon and the Mallee sand-dragon, is a species of lizard in the family Agamidae. The species is native to the arid parts of southern Australia.
Ctenophorus adelaidensis, commonly known as the western heath dragon is a species of agamid lizard occurring in sandplains with heath and banksia along the lower coast of Western Australia, between Kalbarri and Perth. Adults are grey in colour, with dark blotches. They are relatively slow compared to other Ctenophorus species, preferring to scuttle rather than sprint.
Ctenophorus butlerorum, also known commonly as Butler's dragon, the Shark Bay heath dragon and the Edel heath dragon, is a species of lizard in the family Agamidae. The species is endemic to Australia.
Ctenophorus caudicinctus, commonly known as the ring-tailed dragon or ring-tailed bicycle-dragon is a native species of agamid lizard occurring in rocky ranges and outcrops of Australia. Ctenophorus caudicinctus is most commonly found in the Pilbara region and offshore islands of Western Australia. The ctenophorus has 28 known species in the northern, southern, and western parts of Australia. It is recognized to be the most speciose group of Australian agamids.
Ctenophorus mckenziei, more commonly known as the dwarf-bicycle dragon, is a species of endemic Australian lizard within the family Agamidae and genus Ctenophorus. Originally identified as the agamid Amphibolurus mckenziei, the lizard had been identified within the regions of Western Australia and South Australia in which it occupied the shrubbery and woodland areas as its habitat. It was subsequently transferred to the genus Ctenophorus along with other Agamid species in which it shared similar morphology and characteristics. The name mckenziei is in reference to Norman Leslie Mckenzie, who was a zoologist and discovered the existence of the lizard. Listed on the IUCN red list page, threats to its population numbers are evaluated as least concern; however, their numbers are threatened by habitat loss, climate change, and feral predators.
Ctenophorus nguyarna, commonly known as the Lake Disappointment dragon is a species of agamid lizard occurring in low samphire shrubs fringing the remote Kumpupintil Lake, Western Australia.
Ctenophorus spinodomus commonly known as Eastern Mallee Dragon, is a species of agamid lizard endemic to the arid and semi-arid regions of southeastern Australia. Belonging to the genus Ctenophorus, which comprises a diverse group of 35 species this small lizard is characterised by striking colours and unique behaviours. Commonly known as dragon lizards, spinodomus is derived from the Greek words "spinos" (thorn) and "domos" (house), referring to its preference for burrowing habitats among spiny vegetation. They are curious creatures and can be found darting between the safety of Triodia grass clumps or basking on the red sand.
1 2 3 Cogger, H. G. (2018). Reptiles & amphibians of Australia. CSIRO Publishing.
↑ Thompson, G., & Withers, P. (2005). The relationship between size-free body shape and choice of retreat for Western Australian Ctenophorus (Agamidae) dragon lizards. Amphibia-Reptilia, 26(1), 65-72. doi:10.1163/1568538053693323.
↑ Melville, J., Shoo, L. P., & Doughty, P. (2008). Phylogenetic relationships of the heath dragons (Rankinia adelaidensis and R. parviceps) from the south-western Australian biodiversity hotspot. Australian Journal of Zoology, 56(3), 159. doi:10.1071/zo07069
↑ Chen, I., Stuart-Fox, D., Hugall, A. F., & Symonds, M. R. (2012). Sexual Selection And The Evolution Of Complex Color Patterns In Dragon Lizards. Evolution, 66(11), 3605-3614. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2012.01698.x
↑ Stilson, T., Bell, J., & Mead, I. (2016). Patterns of Variation in the Cranial Osteology of Three Species of Endemic Australian lizards (Ctenophorus: Squamata: Agamidae): Implications for the Fossil Record and Morphological Analyses made with Limited Sample Sizes (project). MorphoBank Datasets. doi:10.7934/p1262
1 2 3 4 Withers, P., & Thompson, G. (2005). Shape of Western Australian dragon lizards (Agamidae). Amphibia-Reptilia, 26(1), 73-85. doi:10.1163/1568538053693369
1 2 3 4 Melville, J., Shoo, L. P., & Doughty, P. (2008). Phylogenetic relationships of the heath dragons (Rankinia adelaidensis and R. parviceps) from the south-western Australian biodiversity hotspot. Australian Journal of Zoology, 56(3), 159. doi:10.1071/zo07069
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Dyne, G. R., & Walton, D. W. (1987). Fauna of Australia. Austr. Government Publ Service.
↑ Doughty, P., Brad Maryan, Melville, J., & Austin, J. (2007). A New Species of Ctenophorus (Lacertilia: Agamidae) from Lake Disappointment, Western Australia. Herpetologica, 63(1), 72-86. Retrieved April 23, 2021, from JSTOR4497936
↑ Melville, J., Shoo, L. P., & Doughty, P. (2008). Phylogenetic relationships of the heath dragons (Rankinia adelaidensis and R. parviceps) from the south-western Australian biodiversity hotspot. Australian Journal of Zoology, 56(3), 159. doi:10.1071/zo07069
1 2 COLLAR, D., SCHULTE, J., O’MEARA, B., & LOSOS, J. (2010). Habitat use affects morphological diversification in dragon lizards. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 23(5), 1033–1049. doi:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2010.01971.x
↑ Stuart-Fox, D. M., Moussalli, A., Johnston, G. R., & Owens, I. P. (2004). Evolution Of Color Variation In Dragon Lizards: Quantitative Tests Of The Role Of Crypsis And Local Adaptation. Evolution, 58(7), 1549. doi:10.1554/03-448
↑ Doughty, P. (2020). Dragon lizards of australia: Evolution, ecology and a comprehensive field guide. Copeia, 108(3), 701-706. doi:10.1643/CT2020093
↑ Lebas, N. R., & Marshall, N. J. (2000). The role of colour in signalling and male choice in the agamid lizardCtenophorus ornatus. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 267(1442), 445-452. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1020
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