The death of Napoleon I took place on May 5, 1821, at Longwood on the island of St. Helena, during his exile, at the age of 51. It was due to stomach cancer, resulting from the aggravation of an ulcer. From the 1950s onwards, some authors disputed this version, proposing a criminal cause following arsenic poisoning. This thesis is refuted by historians specializing in Napoleon I.
Bedridden since March 17, Napoleon I suffered from excruciating stomach pains. He accepted less and less food, with regular vomiting making him weaker by the day. He got up on May 1, 1821, but weakness forced him to go back to bed. He had a bust of his son placed opposite his bed, with his eyes constantly fixed on it. [4]
On May 3, the symptoms became more alarming. On May 4, there was some hope following a high dose of calomel (toxic mercury chloride) administered by his English physician Archibald Arnott and two of his colleagues, but against the advice of Corsican physician François Antommarchi. The effect, however, was extremely violent. [5]
During the night of May 4-5, Napoleon was in a comatose state. Barely conscious, he seemed to utter the words “tête... armée...” (head... army...). In the morning, his companions gathered at his bedside, suspecting that this would be his last day. He died on Saturday, May 5, 1821, at 5:49 p.m., aged fifty-one years, eight months, twenty-one days. [4]
The next day, the governor of the island, Sir Hudson Lowe, came in person with his staff and the French commissioner, the Marquis de Montchenu, to officially declare the death of “General Bonaparte”. On leaving Longwood, he declared to his entourage: “Well, gentlemen, he was England's greatest enemy, and mine too; but I forgive him everything. At the death of such a great man, one should feel only deep sorrow and profound regret.” [6]
In accordance with Napoleon's wishes, his body was opened on May 6, 1821, at 2 p.m. by François Antommarchi (an experienced prosector), assisted by seven British physicians, in order to ascertain the physical cause of his illness and to take advantage of this document in the event of his son being attacked by some ailment offering analogies with the illness that was about to take him: for Napoleon was convinced that he would die of a disease similar to that which had taken his father Charles Bonaparte, namely cancer of the stomach. [7]
His autopsy, however, gave rise to much controversy since 1821, caused by the many reports, official and unofficial, including no less than three, all different, from Doctor Antommarchi alone. [5]
Before the corpse was closed, the heart and stomach were removed and placed in silver cups containing wine spirits. [4]
Once the operation was complete, the body was dressed in the uniform of the Mounted Chasseurs of the Imperial Guard, adorned with all the orders the deceased had created or received during his reign, after which it was placed on the iron bed he customarily had his retinue carry on his campaigns; the silver-embroidered blue coat he wore at the battle of Marengo served as his mortuary sheet. [4]
The British governor of the island, Hudson Lowe, reached a consensus between the British and French autopsy reports: he concluded that the cause of death was stomach cancer. [4]
Today, this official version has been called into question. The circumstances of his death have been the subject of much speculation, especially since arsenic poisoning was suggested in 1961 by Sten Forshufvud, a Swedish dentist and toxicology expert. [8]
The Corsican physician François Antommarchi [10] and five English doctors [11] note in their autopsy reports the existence of a chronic perforated gastric ulcer (which would have caused fatal peritonitis), probably evolving into cancer, and pulmonary lesions linked to tuberculosis. Another report drawn up 2 years later on September 12, 1823, by Dr. Walter Henry confirms this ulcer, aggravated by the presence of “masses of cancerous ulcerations or squirrels”. Thierry Lentz and Jacques Macé consider this thesis, which corresponds to the initial report, to be the most historically credible. [12]
If all the autopsy reports were compared, it becomes clear that the large perforated gastric ulcer, blocked by the left lobe of the liver, did not cause the Emperor's death. The fact that Dr. Antommarchi had difficulty separating the outer wall of the stomach from the liver argues in favor of an old fibrosis, dating from several weeks or months before death. On the other hand, all witnesses, doctors and non-physicians alike, described a gastric mucosa in poor condition over virtually its entire surface, with a “mass of ulcerations”. This pathology was well described a few years later by Jean Cruveilhier, in 1830, under the name of “gastrorrhagia”. It causes chronic microscopic bleeding, leading to iron deficiency, anemia, and death from exsanguination (loss of more than 40% of total blood volume). [13]
A study published in 2007 in Nature Clinical Practice Gastroenterology and Hepatology suggests that Napoleon had a gastric tumor lesion compatible with stomach cancer. [14] This study is based on descriptions made by Antommarchi in his second autopsy report, published in 1825, four years after the autopsy. However, it has been shown [15] that this autopsy report plagiarizes, in part, a medical article published in May 1823 by Dr. Rullier in the journal Archives Générales de Médecine, entitled “Note sur un petit engorgement cancéreux de l'estomac, extrêmement circonscrit, perforé à son center, et suivi de l'épanchement des aliments dans l'abdomen (Note on a small cancerous engorgement of the stomach, extremely circumscribed, perforated at its center, and followed by effusion of food into the abdomen)”. In addition to being a plagiarism, Antommarchi's 1825 report is a forgery. [16]
Bastien and Jeandel's article demonstrates the unreliability of Antommarchi's 1825 autopsy report. But, for some authors, there are at least four arguments against the diagnosis of cancer as a cause of death:
However, based on the report of clinical descriptions (notably the loss of around ten kilos in the last six months of his life), this study also concludes that he had terminal stomach cancer, caused by an ulcer of bacterial origin (Helicobacter pylori). [14]
Sten Forshufvud, a Swedish stomatologist, proposed this hypothesis around 1955 when reading the memoirs of Louis Joseph Marchand, Napoleon's personal valet, which had just been published by his descendants in 1952 and 1955. Twenty-eight of the 31 symptoms described by Marchand (including the disappearance of the hair system) resembled those caused by arsenic poisoning. [19]
Forshufvud obtained from various sources several locks of hair claimed to belong to Napoleon, and had them analyzed by Professor Hamilton Smith of Glasgow University: by cutting the hair into small segments and analyzing each segment, then referring to the dates on which the hair was said to have been collected, and connecting all this data, he made a histogram showing the evolution of arsenic concentration in Napoleon's body before and during his exile. Napoleon was said to have suffered chronic arsenic poisoning since 1805, which, combined with the island's climate, weakened him to the point where the medical treatments of the time, notably calomel administered in the last days of his life, finished him off. [20]
This thesis was nevertheless called into question by a scientific study in 1998 (suggesting that Napoleon had gastric carcinoma and that his death was due to an internal hemorrhage caused by the ingestion of calomel), and severely criticized by medical historians Paul Gainière and Guy Godlweski and historian Thierry Lentz, for whom Napoleon died “of his own accord”, or even “of boredom”, and who, with Jean Tulard, published a collective work entitled Autour de l'empoisonnement de Napoléon, in which he expressed doubts about the legitimacy of the hair samples taken, the methodology and the interpretation of the results. Interviewed by him and having been able to reread their interviews, Drs. Kintz and Fornix, who carried out the toxicological analyses, declare that they never spoke of Napoleon's “assassination”, but of exposure to arsenic, which is not the same thing. [21]
In June 2010, a book was published that includes previously unpublished English reports confirming Dr. Thomas Shortt's accusations. Shortt diagnosed chronic liver disease in Napoleon, giving rise to the theory that he eventually died of a liver abscess complicated by amoebic dysentery, and that the island's governor, Hudson Lowe, was responsible for wanting to put an end to the illustrious captive's life. These accusations led to the Irish doctor's disbarment from the Royal Navy's medical services. [22]
With funding from Ben Weider, an analysis was carried out by Dr. Pascal Kintz, President of the Association Internationale des Toxicologues de Médecine Légale, who concluded in 2003 that the Emperor had been intoxicated with arsenic, which he found to be present in massive doses, not on the surface as had been the case in previous analyses, but in the medulla, the core of the sovereign's hair. [23]
Two years later, at the ChemTox laboratories in Strasbourg, Dr. Kintz carried out three series of investigations on five different strands of hair, all from different collections around the world: [23]
With these new analyses, Dr. Kintz deepened his study by determining a chronology in the administration of the toxic agent (whose “spikes” were compatible with the symptomatology observed and noted by the Emperor's companions in exile), and identified it as the most toxic mineral arsenic, found in the form of rat poison. [23]
The results of these analyses were presented in detail by Dr. Kintz on June 2, 2005, in Illkirch-Graffenstaden near Strasbourg. In his conclusion, Dr. Kintz testifies: “In all the Emperor's hair samples, ICP-MS revealed massive concentrations consistent with chronic intoxication by highly toxic inorganic arsenic. We are unambiguously on the trail of criminal intoxication". [23]
More recently, in his article Trois séries d'analyse des cheveux de Napoléon confirm une exposition chronique à l'arsenic (24/01/2008), he adds: “Given these scientific data, we can conclude that Napoleon was indeed the victim of chronic intoxication by the mineral arsenic, and therefore by rat poison”. [24]
These conclusions were supported by the International Museum of Surgical Sciences and the International College of Surgeons of Chicago. [24]
On February 11, 2008, the Italian Institute of Nuclear Physics (INFN) of the Universities of Milan and Pavia concluded on the basis of hair samples conserved in Napoleonic museums in France and Italy (Musée Glauco-Lombardide Parme, Musée Napoléonien de Rome and Musée du Château de Malmaison), and measured by the Italian center's nuclear research reactor, that arsenic levels were abnormally high, but comparable to those found in the hair of his youth, and not exceptional compared to the levels found in samples from Josephine de Beauharnais and her son the King of Rome. The institute noted that the quantity of arsenic observed in these samples was a hundred times higher than the level measured today, and observed that “the environment in which people lived at the beginning of the nineteenth century obviously led to the ingestion of quantities of arsenic that we would consider dangerous today”. [25] [26]
The diagnosis of arsenic poisoning in Napoleon is unconvincing, as massive acute poisoning causes death, while proponents argue for chronic poisoning over months or years. Sten Forshufvud identified 31 suggestive signs, including a mix of acute and chronic symptoms, but many are nonspecific. Additionally, chemical poisons typically target specific molecules, leading to a logical progression of symptoms and tissue damage, which does not align with Napoleon's symptoms, such as gingivitis. [27]
In his book Napoleons nyrer (Napoleon's kidneys), Danish physician Arne Soerensen suggested that Napoleon died of urinary and kidney problems. [28]
Every May 5 on St. Helena, a public ceremony is held around the tomb of the French Emperor to mark the anniversary of his death. [29]
At Les Invalides in Paris, ceremonies including wreath-laying and religious ceremonies are organized every year jointly by the Military Governor of Paris, the Governor of Les Invalides, the imperial family and the Fondation Napoléon. [29]
To mark the bicentenary of Napoleon's death on May 5, 2021, 200 years to the day, commemorative ceremonies were held in France and on St. Helena. [30]
Various ceremonies are also planned on the island of St. Helena. On May 5, a ceremony was held at Longwood House. On May 6, a mass will be held in the Emperor's chapel. Finally, a ceremony will be held on May 9 for the burial of the Emperor. These events will be broadcast live over the Internet. [31]
Numerous events (exhibitions, conferences, concerts, etc.) are also planned around the world in 2021. Due to the COVID-19 epidemic, a number of events are likely to be adapted or postponed to a later date. [32]
Peptic ulcer disease is when the inner part of the stomach's gastric mucosa, the first part of the small intestine, or sometimes the lower esophagus, gets damaged. An ulcer in the stomach is called a gastric ulcer, while one in the first part of the intestines is a duodenal ulcer. The most common symptoms of a duodenal ulcer are waking at night with upper abdominal pain, and upper abdominal pain that improves with eating. With a gastric ulcer, the pain may worsen with eating. The pain is often described as a burning or dull ache. Other symptoms include belching, vomiting, weight loss, or poor appetite. About a third of older people with peptic ulcers have no symptoms. Complications may include bleeding, perforation, and blockage of the stomach. Bleeding occurs in as many as 15% of cases.
Napoleon Bonaparte, later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led a series of military campaigns across Europe during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars from 1796 to 1815. He led the French Republic as First Consul from 1799 to 1804, then ruled the French Empire as Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1814, and briefly again in 1815.
Sten Gabriel Bernhard Forshufvud was a Swedish dentist and physician, and amateur toxicologist who formulated and supported the controversial theory that Napoleon was assassinated by a member of his entourage while in exile. He wrote a book, in Swedish, about this in 1961, which was translated the following year as Who Killed Napoleon? He later published his ideas in English in the 1983 book Assassination At St. Helena: The Poisoning Of Napoleon Bonaparte, written in collaboration with Ben Weider, co-author of the 1982 book The Murder Of Napoleon, which also advanced Forshufvud's theories.
Emperor of the French was the title of the monarch and supreme ruler of the First French Empire and the Second French Empire. The emperor of France was an absolute monarch.
Sir Hudson Lowe, was a British Army officer and colonial administrator who served as the governor of Saint Helena from 1816 to 1821. Seeing service during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, he is best known for serving as the de facto jailor of Napoleon when he was in exile on Saint Helena.
Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, has become a worldwide cultural icon generally associated with tactical brilliance, ambition, and political power. His distinctive features and costume have made him a very recognisable figure in popular culture.
Gastritis is the inflammation of the lining of the stomach. It may occur as a short episode or may be of a long duration. There may be no symptoms but, when symptoms are present, the most common is upper abdominal pain. Other possible symptoms include nausea and vomiting, bloating, loss of appetite and heartburn. Complications may include stomach bleeding, stomach ulcers, and stomach tumors. When due to autoimmune problems, low red blood cells due to not enough vitamin B12 may occur, a condition known as pernicious anemia.
Linitis plastica is a morphological variant of diffuse stomach cancer in which the stomach wall becomes thick and rigid.
Scheele's green, also called Schloss green, is chemically a cupric hydrogen arsenite, CuHAsO
3. It is chemically related to Paris green. Scheele's green was invented in 1775 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele. By the end of the 19th century, it had virtually replaced the older green pigments based on copper carbonate. It is a yellowish-green pigment commonly used during the early to mid-19th century in paints as well as being directly incorporated into a variety of products as a colorant. It began to fall out of favor after the 1860s because of its toxicity and the instability of its color in the presence of sulfides and various chemical pollutants. The acutely toxic nature of Scheele's green as well as other arsenic-containing green pigments such as Paris green may have contributed to the sharp decline in the popularity of the color green in late Victorian society. By the dawn of the 20th century, Scheele's green had completely fallen out of use as a pigment but was still in use as an insecticide into the 1930s. At least two modern reproductions of Scheele's green hue with modern non-toxic pigments have been made, with similar but non-identical color coordinates: one with hex#3c7a18 and another with hex#478800. The latter is the more typically reported color coordinate for Scheele's green.
The Emperor's New Clothes is a 2001 historical drama film directed by Alan Taylor and based on the 1992 novel The Death of Napoleon by Simon Leys. The film stars Ian Holm as Napoleon Bonaparte, Iben Hjejle, and Tim McInnerny. The plot revisions the history surrounding Napoleon's exile to Saint Helena following his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. Although set in Paris, the film was mostly shot in Turin, Italy.
This is a timeline of the events relating to the discovery that peptic ulcer disease and some cancers are caused by H. pylori. In 2005, Barry Marshall and Robin Warren were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery that peptic ulcer disease (PUD) was primarily caused by Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium with affinity for acidic environments, such as the stomach. As a result, PUD that is associated with H. pylori is currently treated with antibiotics used to eradicate the infection. For decades prior to their discovery, it was widely believed that PUD was caused by excess acid in the stomach. During this time, acid control was the primary method of treatment for PUD, to only partial success. Among other effects, it is now known that acid suppression alters the stomach milieu to make it less amenable to H. pylori infection.
Longwood House is a mansion on the British overseas territory island of St. Helena. It was the final residence of Napoleon Bonaparte, the former Emperor of the French, during his exile on the island of Saint Helena, from 10 December 1815 until his death on 5 May 1821.
James Roche Verling was a British Army surgeon who became personal surgeon to Napoleon Bonaparte on St Helena.
Stomach diseases include gastritis, gastroparesis, Crohn's disease and various cancers.
During the time of Napoleon Bonaparte, it was customary to cast a death mask of a great leader who had recently died. A mixture of wax or plaster was placed over Napoleon's face and removed after the form had hardened. From this impression, subsequent copies were cast. Much mystery and controversy surrounds the origins and whereabouts of the most original cast moulds. There are only four genuine bronze death masks known to exist.
The Memorial of Saint Helena, written by Emmanuel de Las Cases, is a journal-memoir of the beginning of Napoleon Bonaparte's exile on Saint Helena. The core of the work transcribes Las Cases' near-daily conversations with the former Emperor on his life, his career, his political philosophy, and the conditions of his exile.
François Carlo Antommarchi was Napoleon's physician from 1819 to his death in 1821.
Napoleon's penis was allegedly amputated during an autopsy shortly after his death in 1821. Since then it has passed through several owners, including A. S. W. Rosenbach, who exhibited it in New York City in 1927. It was purchased by John K. Lattimer in 1977, and is still owned in his family. It was described as similar to a "piece of leather or a small, shriveled eel".
Napoleon I's exile to St. Helena encompasses the final six years of the deposed emperor's life, commencing with his second abdication at the end of the Hundred Days, which had concluded with his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo.
Napoleon I's first abdication was a moment in French history when, in April 1814, the French emperor Napoleon I was forced to relinquish power following his military defeat in the French campaign and his allies’ invasion.