Decommissioning of Russian nuclear-powered vessels

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The decommissioning of Russian nuclear-powered vessels is an issue of major concern to the United States and to Scandinavian countries [1] near Russia. From 1950 to 2003, the Soviet Union and its major successor state, Russia, constructed the largest nuclear-powered navy in the world, [2] with more ships than all other navies combined: [3] 248 submarines (91 attack submarines, 62 cruise missile submarines, 91 ballistic missile submarines and four research submarines), four Kirov-class battlecruisers, and a missile test ship, [1] as well as nine icebreakers. [4] Many were or are powered by two reactors each, bringing the total to 468 reactors. [4]

Contents

With the end of the Cold War and chronic under-funding of its navy, [5] [6] Russia decommissioned many of these vessels, and according to one November 2008 report, intended to scrap all decommissioned submarines (over 200) by 2012. [4] However, the safety records of the Soviet and Russian navies and Russian governmental budgetary constraints are matters of great concern. Ships awaiting decommissioning receive little maintenance, and there are insufficient waste storage facilities, [2] raising worries about possible ecological damage from accidents or improper storage.

Overview

In the midst of the Cold War, the Soviet Union was more concerned about building up its fleet than making provisions for the disposal of aging nuclear-powered vessels. It was not until 1986 that "the Central Committee of the Communist party and the Supreme Soviet ratified Decree No. 095-296 which laid down formal procedures for decommissioning and dismantling inactive nuclear submarines." [7] By this time, the first generation November-class submarines had been in service for over 20 years. To put this figure in perspective, the service life expectancy of more modern Delta IVs is estimated to be between 20 and 30 years with regular overhauls, or 10 to 15 without. [8]

Progress was hindered by the large number of government bodies involved, resulting in much confusion and competition. [3] The breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 further complicated matters. Russia assumed responsibility for all of the Soviet Navy's nuclear-powered ships, but agreements between agencies responsible for decommissioning had to be renegotiated. [7]

The major issues are financial. In 1995, a Northern Fleet submarine based near Murmansk nearly suffered a nuclear meltdown when power was cut off due to unpaid electricity bills. [3] [5] Decommissioned vessels are often left in floating storage until funds can be allocated for their dismantling. [1] As of November 2001, "up to 40% of the decommissioned submarines have been in floating storage without much maintenance for more than 10 years". [1]

The situation has caused such concern that the United States, United Kingdom, Japan and Scandinavian countries have contributed funding and assistance. The Arctic Military Environmental Cooperation (AMEC) was a joint Norwegian, Russian, and American government consortium [9] [10] (which the UK later joined) set up to deal with military environmental issues, mainly the dismantling of Russia's nuclear submarine fleet in Europe. After the "somewhat acrimonious dissolution" of AMEC, the Norwegian and British governments shared the £3.9 million cost of dismantling a Russian November-class submarine. [11] Under AMEC's successor, Cooperative Threat Reduction, the British government financed the dismantling of two Oscar I submarines. The Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction program has been responsible for the deactivation and destruction of many weapons, including 33 nuclear submarines. [12] With the "Star of Hope" program, Japan funded the dismantling of five Victor III and one Charlie I submarine in the Far East.

Another critical issue is security. Russian sailors have been convicted and jailed for two 1993 thefts of highly enriched uranium from fuel rods. [9] In 1994, Russian officials caught two North Korean agents trying to buy submarine dismantlement schedules. [9]

Reactor disposal

Removing the fuel from a nuclear reactor requires a specially trained team. [1] A reactor must first be cooled down for at least three years after its final shutdown. [1] The coolant is then removed, followed by the hull above the reactor, and then the top shield. The fuel elements are extracted and transported by ship and then rail to a storage facility.

The still heavily radioactive reactor compartment can then be cut away. (Most Russian submarines have two reactors, "in separate rooms, but in the same compartment." [3] ) Due to a lack of land storage facilities, two adjoining emptied compartments, one forward and one aft, are usually cut off as well to provide buoyancy for storage on water. [3] [7] In some cases, however, only the reactor compartment is removed, and pontoons attached to keep it afloat. [1] [7] A third method involves filling the reactor compartment with polystyrene for buoyancy. [7] "Reactor compartments from Polyarny and other shipyards at the Kola Peninsula and in Severodvinsk, Arkhangelsk county, are towed to Sayda Bay". [13]

On 10 August 1985, control rods were incorrectly removed from a Victor-class submarine during defueling at Chazma Bay naval yard outside Vladivostok, resulting in an explosion, the "release of large amounts of radioactivity", and ten deaths. [3] In addition to this Victor, five other submarines have damaged cores, preventing their defueling by normal methods. [3]

A March 1993 Russian government report acknowledged that "during the period [from] 1965 to 1988, the Northern Fleet had dumped four reactor compartments with eight reactors (three containing damaged fuel) in the Abrosimov Gulf in 20 to 40 meters of water." [3] Six other compartments, containing nine reactors in all, had also been dumped into the water in the 1960s and 1970s. [3]

Submarines

November class

The surviving November-class submarines were decommissioned between 1986 and 1990.[ citation needed ] Several of them have been scrapped already. All of the survivors remain laid-up hulks in Russian naval bases (K-14, K-42, K-115 and K-133 of the Pacific Fleet, as well as K-11 and K-21 of the Northern Fleet).[ citation needed ] There are plans to convert the first submarine of the class (K-3) into a museum ship in Saint Petersburg, but the hulk remains in Polyarny, Murmansk Oblast, due to economic reasons and the "radiophobia" of some ecological organizations.[ citation needed ]

K-5 was defueled at the naval yard at Polyarny in November 1966. [14] According to one source, the shipyard "likely dismantled" the submarine the same year. [15]

K-27 was an experimental attack submarine of the November class that went into service in October 1963. A reactor malfunction on 24 May 1968 resulted in the release of radioactive gas into the engine room and fatal exposure to nine crewmen. The Soviet Navy considered replacing the reactor, but subsequently abandoned the idea, and K-27 was officially decommissioned on 1 February 1979. "The empty spaces of the reactor and equipment associated with the reactor ... were filled with a solidifying radiation-resistant preservative" [16] and K-27 was scuttled off the northeastern coast of Novaya Zemlya on 6 September 1982.

K-159 sank in the Barents Sea on 30 August 2003, while being towed to be scrapped, killing nine crewmen and depositing 800 kilograms (1,800 lb) of reactor fuel on the seabed. [11]

Hotel class

All eight Hotel-class submarines were decommissioned for scrapping between 1987 and 1991.[ citation needed ] One undated article placed a Hotel-class submarine at Sevmorput Naval Shipyard No. 35 in Murmansk. [17] As of February 2003, two were reported to be at Russian Shipyard Number 10 at Polyarny. [15]

Echo class

All 34 Echo-class submarines were decommissioned for scrapping between 1985 and 1995. According to the Federation of American Scientists, one or possibly two Echos was decommissioned in the mid-1980s, and the remaining three or four in 1990. [18] The 29 Echo IIs were all decommissioned by the mid-1990s. [18]

On 23 October 2002, a nuclear submarine caught fire during dismantlement at Sevmorput; according to the Bellona Foundation, it was probably the Echo II-class K-22. Fortunately, the reactor compartment had already been removed, and there was no danger of radioactive contamination. [17]

Papa class

On 4 June 2010, Voice of Russia reported that K-222, the sole member of the Papa class, had been scrapped at Severodvinsk. [19]

Yankee class

As a result of the SALT I and START I/II treaties, 33 of the 34 Yankee class were decommissioned,[ citation needed ] while K-219 was lost on 6 October 1986 after an explosion and fire near Bermuda. The Bellona Foundation reported on 7 February 2003 [20] that:

Delta class

All 18 Delta I boats were taken out of service by 1998 and scrapped by 2005, while the four Delta IIs were taken out of service in 1996.[ citation needed ] Some of the Delta IIIs were decommissioned and others put in reserve. Five remain in active service, along with all seven Delta IVs. Delta I-class submarines K-279, K-385, K-472 and K-475, Delta II K-193, and Delta IIIs K-441 and K-424 were all reported dismantled at Zvezdochka shipyard. [20]

Charlie class

The 11 Charlie Is and seven Charlie IIs were decommissioned for scrapping between 1990 and 1994.[ citation needed ] On 4 June 1997, a Charlie "sank in a harbor on the Kamchatka Peninsula". [21] However, a local official reported that the reactor core had already been removed. [21] On 21 November 2005, Russian President Vladimir Putin and Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi reached an agreement to dismantle five decommissioned nuclear submarines, among them a Charlie I, the latter "the first project in Kamchatka under the Japan-Russia cooperation framework." [22]

Victor class

According to some sources, all 16 Victor Is and seven Victor IIs were decommissioned by 1996. [23] [24] One cited "various sources" in estimating that only "somewhere between 8 and 15 [Victor IIIs] had been decommissioned due to lack of funds in the 1999-2000 timeframe" [24] while another placed the number at "about a dozen" (of the 26 built) by 1996. [23]

In February 2003, under the Russian-Japanese "Star of Hope" program, Japan spent $6 million to dismantle a Victor III of Russia's Pacific Fleet; the job was completed in December 2004. [25] Another 20 billion yen ($171 million) was allocated to dismantle four Victor IIIs at the Zvezda shipyard in the town of Bolshoi Kamen and a Charlie I at Vilyuchinsk, Kamchatka (as previously mentioned). [25]

Alfa class

K-64, the first of seven Alfa-class submarines, joined the Soviet Navy in December 1971. The following year, however, "the K-64 suffered a major reactor problem when the liquid metal in the primary coolant hardened". [26] Her hull was cut in half in 1973–1974 at Sverodvinsk, the forward portion being sent to Leningrad to be used for training, the reactor compartment being kept at Zvezdochka. [7] [26] The remaining boats were decommissioned for scrapping, five in 1990 and one in 1996. [27] As of February 2003, K-463, K-316, K-432 and K-493 had been dismantled at Sevmash, with the remaining two at Bolshaya Lopatka, Zapadnaya Litsa, awaiting the same fate. [20] [28] The Alfa reactors use a liquid metal coolant that must be kept at a temperature over 123°C to avoid solidifying; a 2002 paper reports that the coolant in both K-123 and K-373 has solidified. [28] An Alfa reactor compartment was reported in November 1997 as being at "an open site on Yagry island in Severodvinsk". [29]

Oscar class

The two Oscar Is were decommissioned in 1996. [30] By 2006, it was reported that their dismantling, funded by the United Kingdom under the Cooperative Threat Reduction program, had been completed at Sevmash shipyard. [30] Two or possibly three Oscar IIs "were inactivated in the late 1990s, and as of mid-2000 were laid up awaiting disposal." [30]

Typhoon class

Three of the six Typhoons have been scrapped. TK-202 was deactivated in 1997, and laid up from July 1999 at the Sevmash shipyard in Severodvinsk. With funding from the Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction program, the defueling of her reactors started in June 2002 at the Zvezdochka shipyard. Scrapping was completed in 2003–2005.[ citation needed ] TK-12 was withdrawn from active service in 1996, and scrapped in 2006–2008.[ citation needed ] TK-13 was withdrawn from active service in 1997, and scrapped in 2007–2009, "funded by Russia, USA and Canada as part of the ['Global partnership' program]". [31] In September 2011, the Russian defense ministry announced it will decommission and dismantle the three remaining boats to comply with the START III treaty and because its newer Borei-class submarines require smaller crews and are less costly to maintain. [32]

Akula class

K-284 Akula, the lead ship of the Akula-class submarine, "was decommissioned in 1995 to avoid the expense of a reactor refueling". [33]

Surface ships

NS Lenin, the world's first nuclear-powered surface and civilian ship, was decommissioned in 1989. It was subsequently converted into a museum ship.

Of the six Arktika-class icebreakers, two are no longer in service. NS Arktika was taken out of service and had its reactor removed in 2008. [34] NS Sibir was taken out of service in 1992 due to a problem in the vessel's steam generation system. [35] The Barents Observer reported on 3 November 2008 that the Russian authorities were preparing to decommission and scrap Sibir. [35] In 2010, the deputy chief engineer of Atomflot, the Russian nuclear fleet operator, reported that "all radioactive [materials] have been unloaded" from Sibir, but the "decommissioning decision has not been made yet, however." [36]

Related Research Articles

The Ship-Submarine Recycling Program (SRP) is the process that the United States Navy uses to dispose of decommissioned nuclear vessels. SRP takes place only at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard (PSNS) in Bremerton, Washington, but the preparations can begin elsewhere.

<i>Kirov</i>-class battlecruiser Class of Russian battlecruisers

The Kirov class, Soviet designation Project 1144 Orlan, is a class of nuclear-powered guided-missile battlecruisers of the Soviet Navy and Russian Navy, the largest and heaviest surface combatant warships in operation in the world. Among modern warships, they are second in size only to large aircraft carriers, and of similar size to a World War I-era battleship. The ships are often referred to as battlecruisers by Western defence commentators due to their size and general appearance. The Soviet classification of the ship-type is "heavy nuclear-powered guided-missile cruiser".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russian Shipyard Number 10</span> Naval shipyard in Polyarny, Murmansk Oblast, Russia

Russian Shipyard No. 10—Shkval is located in Polyarny, Murmansk Oblast, Russia, on the outermost western side of the Murmansk Fjord. In the West, it is more often referred to by the name of the town than its official name. As the first nuclear-powered submarines were delivered to the Northern Fleet at the end of the 1950s, the yard was modified for docking and repair of these vessels. As Soviet Navy nuclear vessels are decommissioned, they are laid up at Polyarny awaiting defueling and disposal.

Soviet submarine <i>K-159</i> Former nuclear-powered Soviet submarine

K-159 was a Project 627A "Kit" nuclear-powered submarine that served in the Northern Fleet of the Soviet Navy from 1963–89. Her keel was laid down on 15 August 1962 at the Severodvinsk "Sevmash" Shipyard No. 402. She was launched on 6 June 1963, and commissioned on 9 October 1963.

K-27 was the only nuclear submarine of the Soviet Navy's Project 645. It was constructed by placing a pair of experimental VT-1 nuclear reactors that used a liquid-metal coolant into the modified hull of a Project 627A (November-class) vessel. A unique NATO reporting name was not assigned.

Typhoon-class submarine Class of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines

The Typhoon class, Soviet designation Project 941 Akula, is a class of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines designed and built by the Soviet Union for the Soviet Navy. With a submerged displacement of 48,000 tonnes, the Typhoons are the largest submarines ever built, able to accommodate comfortable living facilities for the crew of 160 when submerged for months on end. The source of the NATO reporting name remains unclear, although it is often claimed to be related to the use of the word "typhoon" ("тайфун") by General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev of the Communist Party in a 1974 speech while describing a new type of nuclear ballistic missile submarine, as a reaction to the United States Navy's new Ohio-class submarine.

The November class, Soviet designation Project 627 Kit was the Soviet Union's first class of nuclear-powered attack submarines, which were in service from 1958 through 1990. All but one have been disposed of, with the K-3, the first nuclear-powered submarine built for the Soviet Navy, being preserved as a memorial ship in Saint Petersburg.

K-279 was the first Project 667B Murena ballistic missile submarine of the Soviet Navy. Development of Project 667B began in 1965. Her keel was laid down in 1971 by Sevmash at the Severodvinsk shipyard. She was launched in January 1972, and commissioned in the Soviet Northern Fleet on 22 December 1972.

Russian battlecruiser <i>Kirov</i> Kirov-class battlecruiser

Kirov is the lead ship of the Kirov class of nuclear-powered guided missile cruisers. Originally built for the Soviet Navy and passed onto the succeeding Russian Navy, she and her three sister ships are the largest and heaviest surface combatant warships built by them. The Soviet classification of the ship-type is "heavy nuclear-powered guided missile cruiser", nonetheless Kirov's size and weapons complement have earned her the unofficial designation of a battlecruiser throughout much of the world, as her size and displacement is similar to a typical World War I battleship. The appearance of the Kirov class was a significant factor in the U.S. Navy recommissioning the Iowa class. She was named after a Project 26 cruiser.

Delta-class submarine Class of Russian nuclear powered ballistic submarines

The Delta class, Soviet designations Project 667B Murena, Project 667BD Murena-M, Project 667BDR Kalmar, Project 667BDRM Delfin, are a series of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines, designed and built in the Soviet Union, which formed the backbone of the Soviet and Russian strategic submarine fleet since their introduction in 1973. They carry nuclear ballistic missiles of the R-29 Vysota family, with the Delta I, Delta II, Delta III and Delta IV classes carrying the R-29, R-29D, R-29R and R-29RM respectively. The Delta I class carried 12 missiles, while the Delta II class which are lengthened versions of the Delta I class carry 16 missiles. The Delta III and Delta IV classes carry 16 missiles with multiple warheads and have improved electronics and noise reduction. 34 boats were built and commissioned during 1972–1990; approximately five or six remain active in 2023.

The Delta III-class submarine, Soviet designation Project 667BDR Kaľmar (Squid), is a large ballistic missile submarine operated by the Russian Navy. Like other previous Delta-class submarines, the Delta III class is a double hulled design, with a thin low magnetic steel outer hull wrapped around a thicker inner pressure hull.

Soviet submarine <i>TK-202</i>

ТК-202 was a ballistic missile submarine of the Russian Navy, formerly having served in the Soviet Navy.

Russian submarine <i>Petropavlovsk-Kamchatskiy</i> (K-211)

K-211 Petropavlovsk-Kamchatskiy is a Project 667BDR Kalmar class Russian nuclear ballistic missile submarine. The submarine was built by Sevmash, Severodvinsk in the late 1970s and joined the Soviet fleet in 1980. The submarine continued to serve in the Russian Navy as part of the Pacific Fleet after the collapse of the Soviet Union. She was decommissioned in 2010 and is currently laid up, awaiting disposal. Her role and those of the other boats of her class is being taken by the new Borei-class submarines.

Russian submarine <i>Ekaterinburg</i> (K-84) Russian submarine

K-84 Ekaterinburg is a Project 667BDRM Delfin-class nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine. The submarine was laid down on 17 February 1982 at the Russian Northern Machine-Building Enterprise (Sevmash). It was commissioned into the Soviet Navy on 30 December 1985. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the submarine continued to serve in the Russian Navy. Initially known only by its hull number, in February 1999 it was renamed after the city of Yekaterinburg.

Russian submarine <i>Arkhangelsk</i> (K-525) Soviet nuclear-powered cruise missile sub

K-525 Arkhangelsk was an Oscar I-class nuclear-powered cruise missile submarine of the Soviet Navy, and later the Russian Navy. She was the first of the two Oscar I vessels constructed, the other being K-206. A further 11 submarines of an improved class, Project 949A (Antey), were subsequently constructed.

K-206 Murmansk was a nuclear-powered Oscar-class submarine of the Soviet Navy, and later the Russian Navy. She was the second of the two Oscar I vessels constructed, the other being K-525. A further 11 submarines of an improved class, Project 949A (Antey), were subsequently constructed.

Russian submarine <i>Karelia</i> (K-18)

K-18 Karelia is a Project 667BDRM Delfin-class nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine currently in service with the Russian Navy. It was built in Severodvinsk by Sevmash shipbuilding company and was commissioned in 1989. It was refitted from 2004 to 2009, after which it returned to the navy.

The K-119 Voronezh is an Oscar-class submarine in the Russian Navy.

Russian submarine <i>Smolensk</i> (K-410) Oscar-class submarine of the Russian Navy

The K-410 Smolensk is an Oscar-class submarine in the Russian Navy.

The K-480 Ak Bars is an Akula-class submarine in the Russian Navy.

References

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  8. ↑ "667BDRM Dolphin Delta IV". globalsecurity.org.
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  10. ↑ "Declaration among the Department of Defense of the United States of America, the Royal Ministry of Defence of the Kingdom of Norway, and the Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federation, on Arctic Military Environmental Cooperation" (PDF). Department of Defense Environment, Safety and Occupational Health Network and Information Exchange. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 May 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
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  14. ↑ Kudrik, Igor (19 February 1997). "Decommissioning of nuclear submarines at Polyarny". Bellona Foundation . Retrieved 10 December 2011.
  15. 1 2 "NF Decomm: Shipyard No. 10 - Shkval". Bellona Foundation. 7 February 2003. Archived from the original on 4 July 2009. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
  16. ↑ Sarkisov, A. A.; Vysotskii, V. L.; Sivintsev, Yu. V.; Nikitin, V. S. (2007). "Radioecological Problems of Rehabilitating Arctic Seas". Atomic Energy. 103 (6): 971. doi:10.1007/s10512-007-0154-4. S2CID   94119323.
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  18. 1 2 "Project 659 / Echo I / Project 675 / Echo II". Federation of American Scientists. 15 August 2000. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  19. ↑ "K-222 submarine scrapped in Severodvinsk". Voice of Russia. 4 June 2010. Archived from the original on 1 October 2010. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
  20. 1 2 3 "NF decomm: Severodvinsk shipyards - Zvezdochka and Sevmash". Bellona Foundation. 7 February 2003. Archived from the original on 14 April 2013. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  21. 1 2 "Russia: Rybachiy Nuclear Submarine Base / 5/30/97: Sub Sinks in Kamchatka Harbor". Nuclear Threat Initiative. 30 May 1997. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  22. ↑ Sasaki, Hajime. "Japan's Cooperation for Dismantling Decommissioned Nuclear Submarines in the Russian Far East" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency . Retrieved 11 December 2011.
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  27. ↑ Podvodnaya lodka-istrebitel Pr.705(705K), special issue "Tayfun", Sankt Peterburg, 2002
  28. 1 2 Rawool-Sullivan, Mohini; Moskowitz, Paul D.; Shelenkova, Ludmila N. (2002). "Technical and Proliferation-Related Aspects of the Dismantlement of Russian Alfa-class Nuclear Submarines" (PDF). The Nonproliferation Review (Spring 2002): 8.
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