Dog aggression

Last updated

German Shepherd displaying threat behavior Mad dog.jpg
German Shepherd displaying threat behavior

Dog aggression expressed by dogs is considered to be normal behaviour and various types of aggression are influenced by a dog's environment and genetic predisposition. [1] Dogs commonly display possessive aggression when defending resources or themselves. [2]

Contents

Canine aggression may be influenced by a dog's age, sex, health and reproductive status. [3] Canine aggression is one of the most serious behavior problems in animal behavioral medical science. [4] Aggression in canines is particularly important because a dog's sharp teeth can result in serious injuries, [4] or even fatalities in the young or frail.

The determinants for each type of aggression are different, but there are specific factors that are common to canine aggression. [4] The types of aggression include dominance aggression, defensive aggression, predatory aggression and maternal aggression. Aggression in canines may be a self-defense response to a person or animal entering a dog's space, [5] which may be ritualized aggression, not actual aggression, if the violation includes a threat. Aggressive behavior in scared dogs is typically not true aggression but rather ritualized behavior intended to avoid physical altercation by way of faking aggression [6] rather than actual aggression, anxiety disorder, diet, gut microbiome or genetic background. Some aggression can be treated through animal behaviour therapy or avoided by proper socialization during puppyhood.

Types of aggression

Dominance aggression

1) Punishing dogs has been associated with a strong likelihood of new or increased aggression and other behavior problems; 2) dominance in pet dogs is not a character trait of a dog but rather a power agreement between dogs regarding who has best access to particular resources; and 3) the behavior of dogs controlling access to resources is fluid, not static, depending on context. There is also data suggesting that the concept of spoiling a dog is often a misnomer, that this perceived spoiling is often a matter of meeting the dog's emotional and physical needs. [7] [8]

Defensive aggression

Defensive aggression, also known as fear aggression or avoidance-motivated aggression, occurs when an individual approaches and interacts with a human-avoidant dog. The dog might first try to flee, but may resort to aggressive behavior if cornered, as a means to try to defend itself from a real or perceived threat. The dog displays aggressive behavior in an attempt to avoid a real or perceived negative consequence, such as to avoid pain. Dogs may display a multitude of behaviors leading up to an attack including fear and stress signals, defensive posturing, facial expressions, or no signals at all. Signals are generally different for self-defensive dogs versus those who are truly aggressive, as in competitive aggression. [5]

Tortora in 1983 experimented with a shock therapy to retrain avoidance-motivated aggressive dogs to condition them with safety cues, a process which he called Safety Training. He wrote that this therapy, when successful, had long-term benefit for the dog and its owners. [9]

Predatory aggression

Predatory aggression is impacted by anxious influences and it includes behaviors such as biting. DogBite.jpg
Predatory aggression is impacted by anxious influences and it includes behaviors such as biting.

Predatory aggression is usually seen as part of the prey drive sequence starting with a visual or auditory trigger followed by chase, capture and kill. [5] Predatory aggression is impacted by anxious influences, which results in the expression of affective aggression. [10] This type of aggression is caused by sympathetic system activation and is non-affective. [10] Based on a study that examines the predatory aggression in German shepherd dogs, this type of aggression is rarely displayed by dogs. [10] However, if it does occur, it is usually directed towards unfamiliar dogs. [10] Furthermore, predatory behavior activates reward centers in the central nervous system. [10] According to Gonzalo and colleagues, this type of behavior is rewarding and therefore difficult to change. [10] Predatory aggression is displayed by mature and intact males and this type of aggression results in serious damage to others. [10] It includes actions such as chasing, biting, catching and may involve death or injury. [11]

Maternal aggression is displayed by mothers that are protecting their offspring. Maternal aggression decreases as their offspring grow up and they are able to defend themselves. Mom Love.jpg
Maternal aggression is displayed by mothers that are protecting their offspring. Maternal aggression decreases as their offspring grow up and they are able to defend themselves.

Maternal aggression

Maternal aggression is displayed by mothers when they are approached and particularly when their offspring are young. This type of aggression is linked to pain such as in cases of mastitis. [12] Oxytocin plays an important role in the early bonding between the mother and her offspring. [12] Dogs with maternal aggressiveness are protective of their offspring and nest. [12] The change in hormone is linked to lactation, and the mothers can change the dogs' perception and assessment . [12] Maternal aggression may lead to bites or other attacks. [12] Maternal aggressiveness affects the growth and socialization of puppies. [12] Furthermore, this type of aggression may stem from unstable social environments. [12] Maternal dogs are very protective of their puppies and their aggressive tendencies decreases as their offspring grow up and they are able to defend themselves. [12]

Causes

Gut microbiome

Lactobacillus are present in the guts of dogs that exhibit aggressive behavior. Lactobacillus paracasei.jpg
Lactobacillus are present in the guts of dogs that exhibit aggressive behavior.

The gut microbiome is linked to numerous health problems such as diarrhea and bowel disease, which results in pain and can possibly lead to aggression. [13] The gut microbiome affects the affective disorders such as anxiety, which contribute to canine aggression. [13] Based on a study carried out by Kirchoff and colleagues, the composition of gut microbiome differs on the basis of aggressive and non-aggressive assessments. [13] In this study, the researchers tested rescued dogs that possessed aggressive and non aggressive behavior. [13] The dogs were tested in the same environment, ate the same diet, and were consistent breed type, but variation was still present in the gut microbiome. [13] The results of this study show the difference and abundance in lineages in aggressive and non-aggressive groups, indicating that an aggressive dog displays physiological conditions in their gut, which affects the composition of the gut microbiome. [13] It also shows that the gut microbiome is associated with aggressive behavior. [13] Lactobacillus are present in the guts of dogs that exhibit aggressive behavior, even though strains of Lactobacillus rhamnosus reduce stress and anxiety in mice. [13] However, Fusobacterium is present in the stool sample of dogs that display non-aggressive behavior, even though it is known to evoke pro-inflammatory effects of gut microbiome. [13]

Anxiety

Some aggression stems from generalized anxiety. The dog cannot determine the difference between a legitimate and false threat. Some signs of anxiety include dilated pupils, constant yawning and lip licking, ears pulled back, trembling, tail tucked and lowered body or head. An anxious dog may pace or be unable to relax even when there is no threat present. [5]

Anxiety screening was used in behavioral evaluation of children-directed aggressive behavior in dogs and according to Reisner and colleagues, 77% of animals displayed abnormalities. [14] Aggressive behavior in dogs is often associated with fear, the separation from their owner, or noise sensitivity, all of which may result in or contribute to anxiety disorder. [14]

Fear

In a study that examines the prevalence, comorbidity, and behavioral variation in canine anxiety, owners of fearful dogs reported that their dogs demonstrate behaviors they consider aggressive, such as barking and growling, to strangers and other dogs. [15] The owners of 673 dogs noted that their dogs express fear by barking, and growling. The presence of aggression in dogs is associated with defense mechanism. [15] Based on this study, there was an increase in bites towards strangers and familiar people when the self-defense response was not heeded, such as by cornering an avoidant dog. [15] However, Abrantes points out that aggressive behavior in dogs is behavior that causes pain or injury, [16] and HSUS explains that barking and growling are normal communicative behaviors for dogs not necessarily indicative of aggression. [17]

Breed, socialization, and health status

Dogs that suffer from injuries, disorders or illnesses are more likely to display aggressive behavior, especially when located in frontal cortex, the hypothalamus, the thalamus, the amygdaloid body, the medial mammillary, the nucleus, the habenular nuclei, the hippocampus and the caudate nucleus. Anatomy and physiology LS dog's brain.JPG
Dogs that suffer from injuries, disorders or illnesses are more likely to display aggressive behavior, especially when located in frontal cortex, the hypothalamus, the thalamus, the amygdaloid body, the medial mammillary, the nucleus, the habenular nuclei, the hippocampus and the caudate nucleus.

It is important to recognize that aggression is displayed more in certain breeds, which indicates the influence of genetic background on aggression in dogs. [1] According to Roll and Unshelm, German Shepherd dogs and Bull Terriers are more likely to display violent behavior to others. [1] Voith and Borchelt found that higher incidences of aggressive behavior were displayed in purebred dogs when compared with mixed breed dogs. [1] Often, aggression in adult dogs is usually a result of little to no contact in early life. [1] In other words, as a result of missed early socialization, a dog will not know how to interact with others, how to follow rules or how to adapt to new environments. [1] Aggressive behavior is more prominent in intact males when compared with neutered males and in sterilized females than intact females. [1] According to Hoerlein, the removal of a male's testicles has significant impact on aggressive and dominant males. [1] Neoplasia of the central nervous system, infectious diseases, developmental and metabolic disorders may impact aggression in dogs. [1] Many of these illnesses can cause aggressive and violent behavior, especially when located in the frontal cortex, the hypothalamus, the thalamus, the amygdaloid body, the medial mammillary, the nucleus, the habenular nuclei, the hippocampus and the caudate nucleus. [1]

Research

Gonadectomy also known as neuter or castration is one of the most common procedures performed on dogs. It is the removal of reproductive organs. This procedure is performed at the veterinary by a professional veterinarian. Dog at the vet (6130836262).jpg
Gonadectomy also known as neuter or castration is one of the most common procedures performed on dogs. It is the removal of reproductive organs. This procedure is performed at the veterinary by a professional veterinarian.

Gonadectomy

Gonadectomy is used to treat aggressive behavior of dogs. Farhoody and colleagues carried out a study to determine the impact of gonadectomy on the aggressive behavior of dogs using the Canine Behavioral Assessment Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ). [18] According to the data collected, gonadectomized dogs between the ages of 7 and 12 months were more likely to be aggressive to strangers. [18]

Furthermore, gonadectomized dogs of all ages do not display violent behavior to familiar people or strangers. [18] The data does not show that gonadectomy prevent or treat aggressive behavior of dogs. [18]

Based on McMillan and colleagues’ research, aggressive behavior was prominent in dogs obtained from pet stores. [19]   Guy and colleagues found that environmental factors directly contributed to aggression in dogs. [20] For instance, a dog that lives in a home with an adolescent or has a skin disorder is more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior to familiar people and strangers. [20]

Roll and Unshelm believed that the reason for buying or adopting a dog was a significant factor that correlated with aggression. [21]  They also argued that the relationship between the owner and dog determined whether or not the dog would exhibit aggressive behavior. [21] For instance, the owner's attitude towards training, or physical mistreatment endured by the dog at the hands of the owner resulted in aggressive behavior towards others. [21] Many factors impact the aggressive behavior displayed by dogs. [21]

Reactivity to stimuli

According to Arata and colleagues, reactivity to stimuli is involved in various types of aggression. [4] The researchers used a questionnaire survey to assess approximately 5000 dogs of 17 breeds. [4] In this study, a factor analysis was used to extract five consistent factors in 14 of the 17 breeds. [4] Using 14 behavioral items, the researchers were able to see the consistent presence of these factors in dogs, indicating that these factors are linked to canine aggression. [4]

The collected data and the established factor system indicated that the French Bulldog, Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, Golden Retriever, and Labrador Retriever did not display aggressive behavior. [4] However, the Chihuahua and Miniature Dachshund were more aggressive and more likely to chase others. [4]

Based on this study, reactivity to stimuli was linked to owner-directed aggressive behavior in 13 different breeds, child-directed aggressive behavior in eight different breeds, stranger-directed aggressive behavior in nine breeds and dog-directed aggressive behavior in five breeds. [4] In this study, dogs that are highly reactive to stimuli were either uneasy and reacted to all movements or less engaged and overreacted to unexpected stimuli. [4]

The association between canine aggression and sociability with humans and likeliness to chase were examined. [4] Sociability with humans was linked to child-, stranger-, and dog-directed aggressive behavior in more than seven breeds. [4] Moreover, likeliness to chase was primarily linked to dog-directed aggressive behavior in 10 breeds and dogs that were more likely to chase smaller animals displayed aggressive behavior when interacting with other dogs. [4] Reactivity to stimuli was proven to be an underlying temperamental factor that leads to canine aggression. [4]

Treatment

A dog is being walked by its owner with a leash, which is used to establish and maintain control. It is an owner's responsibility to modify aggressive behavior of their dog. Girl walking dog at Lake Johnson.jpg
A dog is being walked by its owner with a leash, which is used to establish and maintain control. It is an owner's responsibility to modify aggressive behavior of their dog.

Treatment differs for each circumstance, and treatment plans are based heavily on the type of aggression. [22] Based on Judith Blackshaw's study, dogs exhibited dominance aggression towards familiar people and therefore suggested obedience training as the proper treatment. [22] According to a study conducted in 1983 by Tortora, avoidance based aggression was treated by conditioning the dog to a safety tone, this resulted in a complete elimination of the aggressive behavior for the duration of the dogs lives. [9] Aggression can also be reduced in adult dogs during their socialization period as a puppy. Studies show that exposing puppies to their new owners and homing before 8 weeks can drastically reduce aggression later in life. [23] However, it is still imperative for an owner to train their dog every day for a minimum of 10 minutes. [22] More specifically, it is recommended for males to be neutered as this ensures that inherited aggression will not be passed on. [22] It is suggested to use synthetic progestins with castration to reduce and eliminate aggressive behavior in dogs. [22] Predatory and intermale aggression is inherent and related to testosterone secretion and as a result restrain, castration and the use of progestins are essential in reducing aggression in dogs. [22] Some studies suggest that aversive means of control and training contribute to new and increased aggression rather than reduce it. [7]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Akita (dog breed)</span> Dog breed

The Akita is a Japanese dog breed of large size. Originating from the mountains of northern Japan, the Akita has a short double coat similar to that of many other northern spitz breeds. Historically, they were used by matagi for guarding and the hunting of bears.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pit bull</span> Type of dog

Pit bull is an umbrella term for several types of dog believed to have descended from bull and terriers. In the United States, the term is usually considered to include the American Pit Bull Terrier, American Staffordshire Terrier, American Bully, Staffordshire Bull Terrier, and sometimes the American Bulldog, along with any crossbred dog that shares certain physical characteristics with these breeds. In other countries, including the United Kingdom, the term is used as an abbreviation of the American Pit Bull Terrier breed specifically, while the Staffordshire Bull Terrier is not considered a pit bull. Most pit bull-type dogs descend from the British bull and terrier, a 19th-century dog-fighting type developed from crosses between the Old English Bulldog and the Old English Terrier.

Neutering, from the Latin neuter, is the removal of a non-human animal's reproductive organ, either all of it or a considerably large part. The male-specific term is castration, while spaying is usually reserved for female animals. Colloquially, both terms are often referred to as fixing. In male horses, castrating is referred to as gelding. An animal that has not been neutered is sometimes referred to as entire or intact.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog training</span> Practice of teaching behaviors to dogs

Dog training is a kind of animal training, the application of behavior analysis which uses the environmental events of antecedents and consequences to modify the dog behavior, either for it to assist in specific activities or undertake particular tasks, or for it to participate effectively in contemporary domestic life. While training dogs for specific roles dates back to Roman times at least, the training of dogs to be compatible household pets developed with suburbanization in the 1950s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dobermann</span> Black and tan dog breed from Germany

The Dobermann is a German breed of medium-large domestic dog of pinscher type. It was originally bred in Thuringia in about 1890 by Louis Dobermann, a tax collector. It has a long muzzle and – ideally – an even and graceful gait. The ears were traditionally cropped and the tail docked, practices which are now illegal in many countries.

The dog is a domesticated descendant of the wolf. Also called the domestic dog, it is derived from the extinct Pleistocene wolf; the gray wolf is the dog's closest living relative. The dog was the first species to be domesticated by humans. Experts estimate that hunter-gatherers domesticated dogs more than 15,000 years ago, which was before the development of agriculture. Due to their long association with humans, dogs have expanded to a large number of domestic individuals and gained the ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be inadequate for other canids.

Canine reproduction is the process of sexual reproduction in domestic dogs, wolves, coyotes and other canine species.

Growling is a low, guttural vocalization produced by animals as an aggressive warning but can also be found in other contexts such as playful behaviors or mating. Different animals will use growling in specific contexts as a form of communication. In humans, low or dull rumbling noises may also be emitted when they are discontent with something or they are angry, although this human sound is often termed "groaning".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog behavior</span> Internally coordinated responses of dogs to internal and external stimuli

Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses of individuals or groups of domestic dogs to internal and external stimuli. It has been shaped by millennia of contact with humans and their lifestyles. As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans. Behavioral scientists have uncovered a wide range of social-cognitive abilities in domestic dogs.

Temperament tests assess dogs for certain behaviors or suitability for dog sports or adoption from an animal shelter by observing the animal for unwanted or potentially dangerous behavioral traits, such as aggressiveness towards other dogs or humans, shyness, or extreme fear.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shock collar</span> Dog training device using electrical pain to change behavior

A shock collar or remote training collar, also known as an e-collar, Ecollar, or electronic collar, is a type of training collar that utilizes electrical shocks to induce pain to the neck of a dog or other parts of its body, depending on the desired outcome. These collars incorporate a radio-controlled electronic device and are worn around the dog's neck. Many European countries view shock collars as animal cruelty and have banned their use. The mechanism behind shock collars involve inflicting varying levels and duration of pain, which generates fear and serves as a deterrent for undesirable behaviors. Some models of shock collar models offer additional features such as a tone or vibrational setting that can be used as an alternative or in combination with the shock. Certain advanced collars include Internet mapping capabilities and GPS functionality to track the dog's location or notify the owner about its whereabouts.

Animal psychopathology is the study of mental or behavioral disorders in non-human animals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rage syndrome</span> Neurological problem in dogs

Rage syndrome is a rare seizure disorder in dogs, characterized by explosive aggression.

Socialization of animals is the process of training animals so that they can be kept in close relationship to humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Separation anxiety in dogs</span>

Separation anxiety in dogs describes a condition in which a dog exhibits distress and behavior problems when separated from its handler. Separation anxiety typically manifests within minutes of departure of the handler. It is not fully understood why some dogs suffer from separation anxiety and others do not. The diagnosis process often leads to a misdiagnosis as it is difficult to differentiate from other medical and behavioral problems. The behavior may be secondary to an underlying medical condition. With chronic stress, impairments to physiological health can manifest. Increased stress in the dog alters hormone levels, thus decreasing natural immunity to various health problems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog appeasing pheromone</span>

Dog appeasing pheromone (DAP), sometimes known as apasine, is a mixture of esters of fatty acids released by the sebaceous glands in the inter-mammary sulcus of lactating female dogs. It is secreted from between three and four days after parturition and two to five days after weaning. DAP is believed to be detected by the vomeronasal organ and has an appeasing effect on both adults and pups, and assists in establishing a bond with the mother.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calming signals</span> Patterns of behavior in dogs

Calming signals is a term conceived by Norwegian dog trainer and canine ethologist, Turid Rugaas, to describe the patterns of behavior used by dogs when interacting with each other in environments that cause heightened stress and when conveying their desires or intentions. The term has been used interchangeably with "appeasement signals." Calming signals, or appeasement signals, are communicative cues used by dogs to de-escalate aggressive encounters or to prevent the development of aggressive encounters completely. Calming signals are performed by one dog and directed towards one or more individual(s), which could be dogs or individuals of other species, such as humans. When calming signals are ignored, a dog may display warning signals of aggression, and this has the potential to escalate to outright conflict between individuals.

The body language of dogs is one form of non-verbal communication whereby dogs can express emotions and intentions through bodily movements. It refers to the interpretation of posture and behaviour of species in the genus Canis. This form of visual communication is generally used for identifying emotions and intentions of domestic dogs, though it can also be applied to wild canines such as wolves. Understanding the body language of dogs is particularly important in preventing dog bites, especially of children. This communication can occur between dogs, or during a dog-human interaction. Such movements primarily involve the tail, the ears, and the head/body. Tail-wagging is a common tail movement used by dogs to communicate. Additionally, ear flattening or heightening are typical movements made using the ears. In terms of the head/body, it is of interest to study turning of the head, as well as the overall posture of the dog.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tail chasing</span> Behaviour exhibited in dogs

Tail chasing is a behaviour exhibited in dogs that is characterized by spinning in tight circles in either direction, and can be slow and focused on the tail or fast and unfocused. It is a compulsion similar to those seen in humans suffering from OCD and it can be quite disruptive to the lives of the dogs themselves, as well as their owners. Some causes have been suggested, including genetic factors, and environmental factors that vary depending on the individual dog. Furthermore, treatment options include drugs that decrease the frequency of tail chasing by targeting the underlying mechanisms, and behavioural changes regulated by the dog's owners.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Displaced aggression</span> Anger directed at something other than the stimuli

Displaced aggression, also referred to as redirected aggression, occurs when an animal or human is fearful or agitated by external stimuli, a provocation, or perception, but is unable or unwilling to direct their aggression toward the stimulus. The aggressor may direct aggression toward whoever is nearest. The behavior is more common in cats than it is in dogs. In certain species of monkeys anger is redirected toward a relative or friend of an opponent. In cichlid fish, it may be used to manage conflict within the group. Displaced aggression is experienced by humans and animals.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Jacobs, C.; De Keuster, T.; Simoens, P. (June 2003). "Assessing the pathological extent of aggressive behaviour in dogs. A review of the literature". Veterinary Quarterly. 25 (2): 53–60. doi: 10.1080/01652176.2003.9695145 . PMID   12854682.
  2. ↑ Jacobs, Jacquelyn A.; Coe, Jason B.; Widowski, Tina M.; Pearl, David L.; Niel, Lee (June 11, 2018). "Defining and Clarifying the Terms Canine Possessive Aggression and Resource Guarding: A Study of Expert Opinion". Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 5: 115. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00115 . PMC   6004413 . PMID   29942810.
  3. ↑ Lockwood, Randall (1995). "The ethology and epidemiology of canine aggression". In Serpell, James (ed.). The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behaviour and Interactions with People. Cambridge University Press. pp. 131–138. ISBN   978-0-521-42537-7.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Arata, Sayaka; Takeuchi, Yukari; Inoue, Mai; Mori, Yuji (June 27, 2014). "'Reactivity to Stimuli' Is a Temperamental Factor Contributing to Canine Aggression". PLOS ONE. 9 (6): e100767. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j0767A. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0100767 . PMC   4074066 . PMID   24972077.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Frank, Diane (2013). "Aggressive dogs: What questions do we need to ask?". The Canadian Veterinary Journal. 54 (6): 554–556. PMC   3659447 . PMID   24155444.
  6. ↑ "Display behaviour | animal behaviour". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  7. 1 2 Hsu, Yuying; Sun, Liching (March 1, 2010). "Factors associated with aggressive responses in pet dogs". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 123 (3): 108–123. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2010.01.013.
  8. ↑ "Dominance and Dog Training".
  9. 1 2 Tortora, Daniel (1983). "Safety training: the elimination of avoidance-motivated aggression in dogs" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Psychology. 112 (2): 176–214. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.112.2.176. PMID   6223971 . Retrieved October 6, 2020.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Chávez, Gonzalo A.; Opazo, Álvaro J. (November 2012). "Predatory aggression in a German shepherd dog". Journal of Veterinary Behavior. 7 (6): 386–389. doi:10.1016/j.jveb.2012.02.004.
  11. ↑ Jacobs, Jacquelyn (April 2016). Understanding Canine Resource Guarding Behaviour: An Epidemiological Approach (Thesis). hdl:10214/9642.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Lezama-García, Karina; Mariti, Chiara; Mota-Rojas, Daniel; Martínez-Burnes, Julio; Barrios-García, Hugo; Gazzano, Angelo (January 2, 2019). "Maternal behaviour in domestic dogs". International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine. 7 (1): 20–30. doi:10.1080/23144599.2019.1641899. PMC   6776987 . PMID   31620484.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Kirchoff, Nicole S.; Udell, Monique A. R.; Sharpton, Thomas J. (2019). "The gut microbiome correlates with conspecific aggression in a small population of rescued dogs (Canis familiaris)". PeerJ. 7: e6103. doi: 10.7717/peerj.6103 . PMC   6330041 . PMID   30643689.
  14. 1 2 Reisner, I. R; Shofer, F. S; Nance, M. L (October 1, 2007). "Behavioral assessment of child-directed canine aggression". Injury Prevention. 13 (5): 348–351. doi:10.1136/ip.2007.015396. PMC   2610618 . PMID   17916894.
  15. 1 2 3 Tiira, Katriina; Sulkama, Sini; Lohi, Hannes (November 1, 2016). "Prevalence, comorbidity, and behavioral variation in canine anxiety". Journal of Veterinary Behavior. 16: 36–44. doi: 10.1016/j.jveb.2016.06.008 .
  16. ↑ "Aggressive Behavior—the Making of a Definition". June 12, 2014.
  17. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 20, 2020. Retrieved December 6, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  18. 1 2 3 4 Farhoody, Parvene; Mallawaarachchi, Indika; Tarwater, Patrick M.; Serpell, James A.; Duffy, Deborah L.; Zink, Chris (February 26, 2018). "Aggression toward Familiar People, Strangers, and Conspecifics in Gonadectomized and Intact Dogs". Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 5: 18. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00018 . PMC   5834763 . PMID   29536014.
  19. ↑ McMillan, Franklin D.; Serpell, James A.; Duffy, Deborah L.; Masaoud, Elmabrok; Dohoo, Ian R. (May 15, 2013). "Differences in behavioral characteristics between dogs obtained as puppies from pet stores and those obtained from noncommercial breeders". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 242 (10): 1359–1363. doi: 10.2460/javma.242.10.1359 . PMID   23634679.
  20. 1 2 Guy, N. C; Luescher, U. A; Dohoo, S. E; Spangler, E; Miller, J. B; Dohoo, I. R; Bate, L. A (September 11, 2001). "Risk factors for dog bites to owners in a general veterinary caseload". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 74 (1): 29–42. doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(01)00154-X.
  21. 1 2 3 4 Roll, A.; Unshelm, J. (April 1, 1997). "Aggressive conflicts amongst dogs and factors affecting them". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 52 (3): 229–242. doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(96)01125-2.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Blackshaw, Judith K. (May 1, 1991). "An overview of types of aggressive behaviour in dogs and methods of treatment". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 30 (3): 351–361. doi:10.1016/0168-1591(91)90140-S.
  23. ↑ Jokinen, Olli; Appleby, David; Sandbacka-Saxén, Sofi; Appleby, Tuulia; Valros, Anna (October 1, 2017). "Homing age influences the prevalence of aggressive and avoidance-related behaviour in adult dogs". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 195: 87–92. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2017.06.003. hdl: 10138/307995 . ISSN   0168-1591.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.