Dual language is a form of education in which students are taught literacy and content in two languages. Most dual language programs in the United States teach in English and Spanish, but programs increasingly use a partner language other than Spanish, such as Arabic, Chinese, French, Hawaiian, Japanese, or Korean. Dual language programs use the partner language for at least half of the instructional day in the elementary years.
Coral Way Elementary, K-8 dual language school, Dade County, Florida
The initiation of dual immersion programs in the United States is characterized by the coalescence of local politicians and community members. Coral Way Elementary, a K-8 school in Dade County, Florida, is cited as the first two-way bilingual school, beginning in 1963.[1] The program was started by Cuban citizens who were seeking refuge in Florida from the Castro regime and believed that their children would eventually return to Cuban schools.[1] Fourteen more dual language bilingual schools were started in Dade County during the 1960s.[2] The Ecole Bilingue, a French/English school in Massachusetts, was formed around the same time . In 1968, the passing of the Bilingual Education Act served to address the reality that Limited English Proficient (LEP) students were in need of proper instructional support to achieve academic gains and, in turn, provided federal funding for primary language instruction in local school districts . The Lau v. Nichols ruling of 1974 further affirmed a student's right to educational opportunity via appropriate instructional services.[3] Schools were now charged with the mission to implement programs suitable to the needs of their language minority students.
The number of dual immersion programs remained relatively low throughout the mid-1980s, but later, more attention was given to the need to provide challenging, yet comprehensible,[3] instruction to English language learners (ELLs), which triggered a substantial growth in the number of programs. In 2002, for example, the implementation of the English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement Act of the No Child Left Behind Act made it requisite that schools with large numbers of language-minority students provide instruction that facilitates their acquisition of English to perform well on standardized tests consequently . There are now 398 two-way immersion programs in 30 states and the District of Columbia.
The number of programs has increased significantly in the last decade, despite efforts made in states such as Arizona and California to eradicate bilingual education programs in favor of English-immersion, with the passing of Proposition 203 and Proposition 227, respectively. It is estimated that 94% of the dual immersion programs are Spanish/English, with the remaining 6% being Chinese/English, Navajo/English, Japanese/English, and Korean/English programs.[4]
Changes since first implementation
One of the most salient changes in the two-way immersion program since its inception has been its conversion from being centered predominately on aiding ELLs to develop fluency in English to striving for biliteracy, bilingualism, and biculturalism for all students participating. Although two-way immersion initially focused on supporting ELLs in their development and acquisition of English literacy skills, the need to develop bilingualism in an increasingly-globalized society has made the program appealing for many parents of children who are native speakers of English.[3] Foreign-language education programs can provide native speakers of English with exposure to a second language, but TWI has the potential to help students achieve near fluency in a second language.
That suggests that such programs are not solely to ELLs to acquire English, but they aim to develop second language proficiency for native speakers of English. In fact, because two-way immersion requires almost an equal amount of native English-speakers and native Spanish-speakers, a lack of native English-speakers makes it unlikely that such programs will not be implemented. That implies that native Spanish-speakers may not receive the opportunity to take part in the dual immersion program (Gomez, 2005).
Types
There are four main types of dual language programs, which mainly differ in the population:
Developmental, or maintenance, bilingual programs enroll primarily students who are native speakers of the partner language.
Two-way (bilingual) immersion programs enroll a balance of native English speakers and native speakers of the partner language.
Foreign language immersion, language immersion or one-way immersion enroll primarily native English-speakers.
Heritage language programs enroll mainly students who are dominant in English but whose parents, grandparents, or other ancestors spoke the partner language.
The term "dual language" is often used interchangeably with two-way immersion. Other variations on dual language include "dual language immersion," "dual immersion," and "dual enrollment". The term "bilingual education" has somewhat fallen out of favor among dual language practitioners but is still used to refer to any program that uses two languages for instruction.
Dual language programs are different from transitional bilingual programs, whose aim is to transition students out of their native language as quickly as possibly, usually within three years. That is sometimes referred to as "subtractive bilingualism" since the first language is typically lost as English is acquired. Dual language programs are considered to promote "additive bilingualism," students' primary language is developed and maintained as a second language is added.
Another type of program that is not considered dual language is foreign language education in which students receive less than half a day studying in the partner language and often study only language arts and literature in that language, as opposed to content area subjects, such as mathematics, science, and social studies.
Variations
There are two main variations based on the amount of time spent in the partner language and the division of languages.
Amount of time spent in partner language
Full immersion, or 90/10, programs teach in the partner language 90% of the time in the primary grades (usually kindergarten and the first grade) and 10% in English, and they gradually adjust the ratio each year until the partner language is used 50% and English is used 50% by third or fourth grade (sometimes later if the program extends to the eighth grade or beyond). On the other hand, 50/50 programs teach 50% of the day in English and 50% of the day in the partner language at all grade levels.
Partial immersion programs teach less than 50% of the time and usually focus on one content area, usually language arts, math or science.
There is currently no research indicating that one method is preferable to another, but some research indicates that students who spend more time in the partner language do better in that language (Howard, Christian, & Genesee, 2003; Lindholm-Leary, 2001; Lindholm-Leary & Howard, in press) and that language minority students (in the US, those whose native language is not English) do better academically when their native language is supported and developed (Thomas & Collier, 1997; 2002).
Some schools like Arizona Language Preparatory, in Phoenix, Arizona, and Alicia R. Chacon Elementary School, in El Paso, Texas, include a third language for a full day or a small portion of the day at all grade levels. Arizona Language Preparatory offers two full days of Mandarin Chinese, two full days of Spanish, and one day of English. Arizona Language Preparatory is also the first school in the nation to send a delegation of "Mini Ambassadors" through Phoenix Sister Cities to Chengdu, China. Youth ambassador programs are typically done on the high school level. Arizona Language Preparatory also held the Country's first ever Mandarin Spelling Bee in Phoenix, Arizona on May 17, 2021.
Full immersion (90/10) programs typically begin literacy instruction for students in kindergarten and the first grade in the partner language and add formal literacy in English in second or third grade. Students do not need to relearn how to read in English since teachers help them transfer their literacy skills from one language to the other. Other 90/10 programs separate students by native language and provide initial literacy instruction in the native language, adding second language literacy by second or third grade. In partial immersion or 50/50 programs, initial literacy instruction is either provided simultaneously in both languages to all students, or students are separated by native language in order to receive initial literacy in his or her native language. Students receive their literacy instruction in their native language and once students are in second or third grade they are provided with the second language literacy instruction.[5]
Dual language programs in middle school and high school often merge students from several dual language elementary schools and exist as programs within larger mainstream schools. They often offer dual language students the opportunity to take language arts and at least one content area in the partner language, and many prepare students to take the Advanced Placement exams.
Division of languages
Language division by schedule: within any dual language program, students speak and study in one language at a time, and the times for each language are explicitly defined. There is great variation, however, in the specifics. In some programs, language alternates by day, by week, or several week periods. In other schools, students speak one language in the morning and the other language after lunch. After a designated amount of time (one, two, or more weeks), the morning and afternoon languages switch. Further variation includes programs where particular subjects are always taught in one language, due to resource availability. Within a given school or program, there may be different schedules for different grades, such as at the Amistad Dual Language School in New York City in which students alternate languages less frequently as they progress through the grades and establish stronger skills in both languages.
Language division by instructor: a dual language program may use a self-contained or a side-by-side model. Self-contained programs have one teacher for one group of students in one classroom. The teacher transitions from one language to the other along with the students. Alternatively, side-by-side programs have two or more classrooms for each grade, and one teacher teaches in the partner language, and the other teacher teaches in the dominant language (English in the United States). The grade is divided into two groups of students, which trade classrooms and teachers according to an explicit schedule, whether daily or weekly. Finally, at some schools, two or more teachers may team teach in the same classroom, with each teacher using one language and a combination of whole group, small group, and independent activities facilitated by the teachers.
In the below table, Two-Way Dual Language Immersion is the only two-way program; the other three are one-way dual language programs.
Overview of the Key Attributes of Dual Language Education Programs From U.S. Department of Education
Two-Way/Dual Language Immersion
World Language Immersion Programs
Developmental Bilingual Education Programs
Heritage Language Immersion Programs
Student Population Served
ELs and non-ELs (ideally 50% in each group, or a minimum of 33%)
Primarily English speakers; can include ELs and heritage speakers
ELs and former ELs only
Students whose families' heritage language is/was the partner language
Languages
English and the ELs' home (partner) language
English and a partner language
English and the ELs' home (partner) language
English and the heritage (partner) language
Staffing
One bilingual teacher, who teaches in both languages, or one teacher per language
One bilingual teacher for both languages, or one teacher per language
One bilingual teacher for both languages, or one teacher per language
One bilingual teacher for both languages (prevalent model)
In all programs, the following is true:
Time Allocation per Language: Primarily 50:50, or a combination that starts with more of the partner language (90:10, 80:20, and so on)
Language of Academic Subjects: Varies by program
Language Allocation: Language of instruction allocated by time, content area, or teacher
Duration of Program: Throughout elementary school, with some programs continuing at the second level
Size of Program: Strand or whole school
Overview of the Key Attributes of Dual Language Education Programs From U.S. Department of Education
Potential Benefits of Dual Language in Educational Writing
With Dual Language Writing being implemented there are benefits that can come along with the individual which include increased comfort with Multilingual Identities, empowerment through language use, and linguistic understand. For instance those who are bilingual may find that they feel more comfortable with their Multilingual Identities in their academics, and be less hesitant using other languages they might speak in their academic writing.[6] A way this can be kept exercised is by some educators striving to implement pedagogies that empower language use, to serve as a reminder to consider the broader context, encompassing not just the educational system but also the influence of families, communities, and various social networks.[7] Although some educators in training may acquire more knowledge about nurturing verbal communication skills than about nurturing written communication skills.[8] So it is vital that educators who recognize the influential role of language to keep the opportunity to enact crucial interventions through teaching methods and social engagements.[9]
Many students who communicate using non-mainstream variants of English have experienced the interplay of dual languages for a significant portion of their lives. Consequently, they tend to possess a more advanced linguistic understanding compared to the majority of mainstream students, particularly in recognizing the nuances of language variation and its implications as a realm of power and influence.[10]
Instructions
Dual language programs vary in the kinds of instruction provided but generally implement many of the following features:
ability grouping for targeted purposes, with frequent reassessment based on strengths and weaknesses on different skills
separation of languages in which the teacher will speak only one language at a time without translating but allow students to use native language resources such as peers and bilingual dictionaries
ample time for student interaction (such as the use of co-operative learning), allowing students to practice their new language skills with their peers
Dual language teachers also incorporate practices that should be in place in any classroom with linguistically diverse students:
Teaching content so that it interests and challenges bilingual students
Communicating high expectations, respect, and interest in each of their students
Understanding the roles of language, race, culture, and gender in schooling
Engaging parents and community in the education of their children
Becoming knowledgeable about and developing strategies to educate bilingual students and to communicate with their families
Seeking and obtaining the professional development needed to engender those attitudes, knowledge bases, and specific instructional skills (Garcia, 2005).
In lesson planning, dual language teachers should focus on creating lessons that do the following:
Proceed from whole to part
Are learner-centered
Have meaning and purpose for students and connection to their present lives
Engage groups of students in social interaction
Develop both oral and written language
Show faith in the learner to expand students potential (Freeman & Freeman, 1994)
Other important tips for educators teaching bilingual or multilingual students include organizing content around themes, providing students with choice, starting the learning process with students questions, and exposing students to professional published books and magazines but also student-authored literature (Freeman & Freeman, 1994).
• First Programs in California: River Glen Elementary School in San Jose, CA • Buena Vista International School in San Francisco, CA • San Diego Language Academy in San Diego, CA • Edison Immersion School in Santa Monica - Malibu, CA
Two-way immersion has been referred to as the most effective bilingual program contributing to long-term academic success (Howard et al. 2003, p.24). Thorough planning and effective implementation are crucial to the success of TWI programs, in addition to ample support from administrators and access to quality resources. In well-implemented programs, ELLs have achieved higher academic success than their peers in other bilingual programs (Dorner, 2011). Effective implementation lies in the duration of the program. To produce academic achievement, students ideally must be enrolled in TWI programs for four to seven years (Howard et al. 2003, p.24). Students participating in TWI programs for this length of time have been shown to demonstrate higher academic performance than their peers in English-immersion programs (Howard et al. 2003, p.24). On the contrary, students who receive little to no instruction in their native language, during their elementary years, struggle to attain grade level performance in the target language (Cobb, 2006).
Both Native English Speakers (NES) and ELLs are beneficiaries of the gains made through TWI. The juxtaposed use of the majority and minority language in TWI programs can enable children to transfer skills from the secondary language to their primary language and vice versa (Scanlan, 2009). Research comparing the academic achievement made by native speakers of English and native speakers of Spanish illustrates that while both groups show growth in their native and secondary language, English native speakers are more dominant in their primary language, but Spanish native speakers are able to achieve a more balanced form of bilingualism, that is, relatively equal in their ability to communicate orally and in writing in their primary and secondary language (Howard et al. 2003, p.36).
The evidence of the effectiveness of TWI is consistent in programs where less common languages are maintained as well. For example, an eight-year study of the Navajo/English two-way bilingual program at the Rough Rock Community School in northeastern Arizona confirms that those students who received thorough instruction in their native language as well as the target language encountered more success in school than their peers in English-only programs.[11] Such students too showed progress in both languages in their writing abilities on local and national measures.[11]
In addition to quantitative measures of effectiveness, research has further credited the two-way immersion model as creating more unified communities in public schools amongst parents and caregivers since speakers of both majority and minority languages are grouped together in an effort to develop literacy skills in both languages and consequently foster cross-cultural relationships in both cultures (Scanlan, 2009). Furthermore, studies have shown that high school students who attended schools with two-way bilingual programs were more motivated and passionate about attaining higher-level education (Cobb, 2006).
Dual Language Immersion programs may be inefficient in the education of language-minority students. Issues are raised in the quality of instruction in the minority language, the effects of dual immersion and intergroup relations, and, how Dual Language immersion programs fit into the relationship between language and power of children and society (Valdes, 1997).
While such examples attest to the effectiveness of the TWI model, these programs are often voluntary which signifies the inherent difficulty in making comparisons across programs. Academic success and biculturalism may be attributed to the quality of the TWI program, however, may also be ascribed to external factors such as a student's inherent qualities or socioeconomic status.[12] Thus, while standardized test scores, from a policy perspective, are often used to determine the effectiveness of a program, other elements may impact the academic success achieved by many students in the TWI program.[13]
Related Research Articles
In bilingual education, students are taught in two languages. It is distinct from learning a second language as a subject because both languages are used for instruction in different content areas like math, science, and history. The time spent in each language depends on the model. For example, some models focus on providing education in both languages throughout a student's entire education while others gradually transition to education in only one language. The ultimate goal of bilingual education is fluency and literacy in both languages through a variety of strategies such as translanguaging and recasting.
Language education – the process and practice of teaching a second or foreign language – is primarily a branch of applied linguistics, but can be an interdisciplinary field. There are four main learning categories for language education: communicative competencies, proficiencies, cross-cultural experiences, and multiple literacies.
Language immersion, or simply immersion, is a technique used in bilingual language education in which two languages are used for instruction in a variety of topics, including maths, science, or social studies. The languages used for instruction are referred to as the L1 and the L2 for each student, with L1 being the student's native language and L2 being the second language to be acquired through immersion programs and techniques. There are different types of language immersion that depend on the age of the students, the classtime spent in L2, the subjects that are taught, and the level of participation by the speakers of L1.
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was passed by the 89th United States Congress and signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on April 11, 1965. Part of Johnson's "War on Poverty", the act has been one of the most far-reaching laws affecting education passed by the United States Congress, and was reauthorized by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001.
Transitional bilingual education is an approach to bilingual education in which students first acquire fluency in their native language before acquiring fluency in the second language, where fluency is defined as linguistic fluency as well as literacy. This is in contrast to total immersion bilingual education in which students are directly immersed in the second language. Transitional bilingual education is among those most commonly implemented in public schools across the United States. The application of transitional bilingual education in the United States ultimately resulted from an effort to officially recognize Chicano and Latino identities with the passage of the Bilingual Education Act.
French immersion is a form of bilingual education in which students who do not speak French as a first language will receive instruction in French. In most French-immersion schools, students will learn to speak French and learn most subjects such as history, music, geography, art, physical education and science in French.
The Coral Way Bilingual K-8 Center, built as Coral Way Elementary School in 1936, is a K-8 school located in Miami, Florida, United States (US). The school was a pioneer of bilingual education in 1963, when it began teaching through the mediums of English and Spanish with two groups of students. In 2004, the school expanded to includes grades 7 and 8.
English-language learner is a term used in some English-speaking countries such as the United States and Canada to describe a person who is learning the English language and has a native language that is not English. Some educational advocates, especially in the United States, classify these students as non-native English speakers or emergent bilinguals. Various other terms are also used to refer to students who are not proficient in English, such as English as a second language (ESL), English as an additional language (EAL), limited English proficient (LEP), culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD), non-native English speaker, bilingual students, heritage language, emergent bilingual, and language-minority students. The legal term that is used in federal legislation is 'limited English proficient'.
Inter-American Magnet School is a K-8 magnet school in Lake View, Chicago, Illinois. The oldest two-way bilingual school in the Midwestern United States, it is a part of Chicago Public Schools (CPS).
Multilingual education (MLE) typically refers to "first-language-first" education, that is, schooling which begins in the mother tongue, or first language, and transitions to additional languages. Typically, MLE programs are situated in developing countries where speakers of minority languages, i.e. non-dominant languages, tend to be disadvantaged in the mainstream education system. There are increasing calls to provide first-language-first education to immigrant children from immigrant parents who have moved to the developed world. Offering first-language-first education to immigrant children in developed countries has gained attention due to the unique challenges these students face. When students move to a new country, language and cultural barriers can affect their academic progress and well-being. Some suggest that providing instruction in their first language initially, as part of multilingual education (MLE) programs, could help ease their transition. By recognizing and respecting their linguistic and cultural backgrounds, these programs aim to create a supportive learning environment where students feel more comfortable and confident. While this approach may contribute to the preservation of heritage languages, implementing MLE programs present other potential benefits and challenges.
Cupertino Language Immersion Program (CLIP) is an alternative K-8 education program located at John Muir Elementary School (K-5) and Joaquin Miller Middle School (6-8) in the Cupertino Union School District (CUSD). CLIP is the oldest public Mandarin Immersion program in California and the second oldest in the country.
Structured English Immersion (SEI) is a total immersion bilingual education technique for rapidly teaching English to English language learners. The term was coined by Keith Baker and Adriana de Kanter in a 1983 recommendation to schools to make use of Canada's successful French immersion programs. The Canadian model was developed to encourage bilingualism through immersing Anglophones in the minority language and replaced many English-only laws in various Canadian provinces before the 1960s, while in the United States the same approach was advocated to force minority speakers to adopt English.
Intercultural bilingual education(Educación bilingüe intercultural) is a language-planning model employed throughout Latin America in public education, and it arose as a political movement asserting space for indigenous languages and culture in the education system. IBE is designed to address the educational needs of indigenous communities, and consists of various bilingual curriculum designs.
Translanguaging is a term that can refer to different aspects of multilingualism. It can describe the way bilinguals and multilinguals use their linguistic resources to make sense of and interact with the world around them. It can also refer to a pedagogical approach that utilizes more than one language within a classroom lesson. The term "translanguaging" was coined in the 1980s by Cen Williams in his unpublished thesis titled "An Evaluation of Teaching and Learning Methods in the Context of Bilingual Secondary Education". Williams used the term to describe the practice of using two languages in the same lesson, which differed from many previous methods of bilingual education that tried to separate languages by class, time, or day. In addition, Vogel and Garcia argued that translanguaging theory posits that rather than possessing two or more autonomous language systems, as previously thought when scholars described bilingual or multilingual speakers, bilinguals and multilingual speakers select and deploy their languages from a unitary linguistic repertoire. However, the dissemination of the term, and of the related concept, gained traction decades later due in part to published research by Ofelia García, among others. In this context, translanguaging is an extension of the concept of languaging, the discursive practices of language speakers, but with the additional feature of using multiple languages, often simultaneously. It is a dynamic process in which multilingual speakers navigate complex social and cognitive demands through strategic employment of multiple languages.
Hinoki International School was a two-way Japanese-English language immersion elementary school in Livonia, Michigan in Metro Detroit which opened in 2010 as a charter school. It closed in 2015 before a planned opening of a new Farmington Hills, Michigan campus.
Intercultural bilingual education in Guatemala was begun as part of a 20th-century educational reform effort intended to promote the country's cultural diversity. The programs merge Mayan language and culture with Spanish language and Ladino culture, a shift from the assimilation policy of educational programs promoting Spanish literacy which reduce the use of indigenous languages. During the 20th century, education reform evolved from castilianization and the 1965 Bilingual Castilianization Program to the 1980 National Bilingual Education Project. Each program aimed to increase Spanish fluency. In 1985, the Constitution legalized bilingual education and the Ministry of Education formed the Programa Nacional de Educación Bilingüe (PRONEBI). PRONEBI developed from the 1980–1984 National Bilingual Education Project, and aimed to provide bilingual education for rural indigenous children.
English immersion programs have students to be fully immersed in the American culture, which starts by learning its language — English. A number of those who enroll into English immersion programs are immigrant children. Due to the fact that more ambitious choices are made by immigrant students than nonimmigrant students regarding academic choices, secondary effects, such as these English immersion programs, create positive outcomes. Immigrant children is defined as children who have at least one foreign born parent. Some immigrant students show proficiency in English after being in the program for only 2–3 years while others take longer. There are not many other resources provided by schools that students can go to if they want to learn or improve their English. As a result, it can possibly affect immigrant students' proficiency in English.
Utah's dual language immersion program was created in 2008 to help students achieve proficiency in a second language in preparation for future careers and the global economy. In the early school years, the students are immersed for half a day in a target language – Mandarin Chinese, French, Spanish, Portuguese, or German – and half a day in English. In high school, students can participate in a bridge program, allowing them to take language classes that would give them concurrent college credit at certain universities throughout Utah. Over 160 schools in Utah participate in the program. Proven benefits include an increased performance on standardized tests, fluency in a target language, and an increased cultural awareness and sensitivity.
In bilingual education, students are taught content areas like math, science, and history in two languages. Numerous countries or regions have implemented different forms of bilingual education.
References
1 2 Coral Way Bilingual K-8 Center. "About Coral Way". Coral Way Bilingual K-8 Center. Archived from the original on 26 June 2007. Retrieved 18 May 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
↑ Bae, Jungok (2007). "Development of English Skills Need Not Suffer as a Result of Immersion: Grades 1 and 2 Writing Assessment in a Korean/English Two-Way Immersion Program". Language Learning. 57 (2): 299–332. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00410.x.
↑ Elbow, Peter (2006). "Foreward: When the Margins Are at the Center". In Nero, Shondel J. (ed.). Dialects, Englishes, Creoles, and Education. Lawrence Erlbaum. pp.x–xv.
1 2 McCarty, Teresa L.; Dick, Galena Sells (1996). Mother Tongue Literacy and Language Renewal: The Case of the Navajo. Proceedings of the 1996 World Conference on Literacy. University of Arizona: Tucson, AZ.
Cobb, Brian, Diego Vega, and Cindy Kronauge. "Effects of an Elementary Dual Language Immersion School Program on Junior High Achievement." Middle Grades Research Journal. 1. no. 1 (2006): 27–47.
Chapel Hill-Carrboro City Schools Mandarin Dual Language Program [chccsmdl.com]
Dorner, Lisa M. "Contested Communities in a Debate Over Dual-Language Education: The Import of Public Values on Public Policies ." Educational Policy. 25. no. 4 (2011): 577–613.
Freeman, D., & Freeman, Y. (1994). Between worlds: Access to second language acquisition. (pp.112–181). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
García, E. (2005). Teaching and learning in two languages: Bilingualism and schooling in the United States. (p.163). New York and London: Teachers College Press.
Gomez, Leo, David Freeman, and Yvonne Freeman, "Dual Language Education: A Promising 50-50 Model," Bilingual Research Journal, 29, no. 1 (2005): 145–164.
Howard, E. R., Christian, D., & Genesee, F. (2003). The development of bilingualism and biliteracy from grade 3 to 5: A summary of findings from the CAL/CREDE study of two-way immersion education (Research Report 13). Santa Cruz, CA and Washington, DC: Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence.
Lindholm-Leary, K. (2001). Dual Language Education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
Lindholm-Leary, K. J. & Howard, E.R. (in press). Language Development and Academic Achievement in Two-Way Immersion Programs. In T. Fortune and D. Tedick (Eds.), Pathways to Multilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Scanlan, Martin, and Deborah Palmer. "The name assigned to the document by the author. This field may also contain sub-titles, series names, and report numbers.Race, Power, and (In)equity within Two-Way Immersion Settings." Urban Review: Issues and Ideas in Public Education. 41. no. 5 (2009): 391–415.
Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. (1997). School effectiveness for language minority students. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.
Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. (2002). A national study of school effectiveness for language minority students' long-term academic achievement: final report. Santa Cruz, CA and Washington, DC: Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence.
Valdes, Guadalupe. "Dual-language immersion programs: A cautionary note concerning the education of language-minority students." Harvard Educational Review 67.3 (1997): 391–430.
Rethinking Schools Online, "History of Bilingual Education." Last modified 2003.
World Wide Schools, "Ecole Bilingue, French-American International School of Boston."
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
