Fading affect bias

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The fading affect bias, more commonly known as FAB, is a psychological phenomenon in which memories associated with negative emotions tend to be forgotten more quickly than those associated with positive emotions. [1] It is important to note that FAB only refers to the feelings one has associated with the memories and not the content of the memories themselves. [2] Early research studied FAB retrospectively, or through personal reflection, which brought about some criticism because retrospective analysis can be affected by subjective retrospective biases. However, new research using non-retrospective recall studies have found evidence for FAB, [1] and the phenomenon has become largely accepted.

Contents

Description and background

Some of the earliest evidence for the Fading Affect Bias dates back to a study by Cason (1932). Cason's study using a retrospective procedure where participants recalled and rated past events and emotion when prompted found that recalled emotional intensity for positive events was generally stronger than that of negative events. [3]

Landau and Gunter (2009) showed that the FAB occurs regardless of whether the experience is shared between one person or a group of people that share that memory. People's recall of an event, the negative affective quality of the event can lessen. And the fading affect bias can have an effect on the memory. [4]

Initially, the Fading Affect Bias was widely accepted as the process whereby the emotional valence of certain events fades over time. More specifically, early researchers largely believed that there was a general fading over time of emotional content and intensity in relation to specific life events, regardless of whether the experiences were positive or negative. [1] However, later studies found emotional intensity of negative events to dissipate at a faster rate than positively perceived events. [5] Furthermore, not only are the negative emotions toward the event fading over time, but the ability to recall the negative event memory fades overtime as well. [5] Growing evidence has also acknowledged the tendency for originally negative events to shift over time and be viewed in a more positive way. [5] The FAB exists universally across cultures, [6] and increases in intensity as we age. [7]

Due to the fading of negative event memories, the autobiographical memory of an individual is skewed in a positive light. The FAB is an essential counterpart to the positive affect bias, as it allows and promotes the salience of positive emotional memories. [8] It also plays an important role in positive personal event memory trends essential to the Pollyanna Principle. [9]

Views opposing the FAB concern the idea that negative memories and negative experiences are more salient than positive ones and therefore negative memories would not be subject to recall fading. [1] The first opposing idea is based on the "bad is stronger than good" theory, and is therefore more salient, in terms of affective fading. This view contrary to fading affect bias argues that due to the nature of the self, we are more inclined to focus on and remember negative events. [10] This theory focuses on the belief that human nature is based around negative experiences, memories, and emotions. These are more shaping than all others in regard to the hedonistic view. Those that came up with the "bad is stronger than good" theory talk about how nature itself has been shaped by negative experiences. Things that are better attuned to negative things are also more adaptive and able to survive better. This effect can feed into every aspect of life. [8] Yet, despite this theory, research has also shown that people often recall positive events more often and clearly than negative events, which opposes the idea that "bad is stronger than good". [10]

Another opposing idea to fading affect bias, a stems from the Freudian theory of repression, that in order for repression to occur, the negative emotion associated with the traumatic event would have to remain. [1] The diminishing of these memories via FAB could possibly make repression incapable of occurring, at least according to this interpretation of the concept of repression. However, this idea has been attributed to Freud despite it has been noted that it is only an extension of the Freudian view and not a direct statement of that view. [1] Therefore, none of this views represent solid arguments against FAB and the growing body of evidence seems to solidify its existence. [5]

Research history

Criticism of the Cason (1932) study centered around the fact that retrospective and introspective procedures could be subject to memory biases. A later study—Holmes (1970)—took a "non-introspective" approach to studying FAB using a record of diary events that included the emotional intensity of the event. Twenty-six subjects were told to record events in a diary and record the emotional intensities of the experiences. Results from these studies were found to be generally consistent with FAB. [11]

A study by Walker et al. (1997) discussed the role which memory plays in FAB using diary recording to analyze cognitive processes. Here, it is stated that human beings are preferential in what they select to remember and that certain particulars of events fade, but not emotions. This study found that emotions prompted by positive events were more likely to last than those prompted by negative occurrences.

Ritchie et al. (2009) used subject's personal responses to 1200 autobiographical events to study the Fading Affect Bias. In this study, four possible trends were found regarding memory: the Fixed Affect (wherein emotional intensity is maintained), the Fading Affect (wherein emotional intensity diminishes), the Flourishing Affect (where there is an increase in intensity), and the Flexible Affect (where there is a reversal of valence). For positive recollections, the Fixed Affect was more prominent (39%) than the Fading Affect (37%). However, for negative occurrences, the Fading Affect was more prominent (51%) than the Fixed Affect (38%). Reiterating the bias towards the fading of negative memories.

In addition to the aforementioned psychological studies, related neurobiological studies were conducted that could possibly further explain the phenomenon of FAB. During an interview, neurobiologist Matt Wilson detailed that in studying the brain activity of rats it was found that the remembrance of past events and the anticipation of future events seemed to be linked neurologically. [12] This is a possible implication of why FAB exists: the human need to catalog relevant information to be used in the future.

Memory types

FAB is most commonly observed in autobiographical event memories, however it has been explored across different memory types.

Flashbulb memories

[13] A study by Bohn & Berntsen (2007) used the falling of the Berlin Wall to observe how the FAB affects flashbulb memories. East and West Germans were asked to rate their feelings toward the fall of the Berlin Wall when it happened and their current feelings towards the event. They found that individuals with positive feelings about it when the wall fell maintained their positive feelings at time of recall. Those who viewed the fall of The Wall as negative had less negative emotions attached to the event at time of recall. [13] The salience of FAB outside of autobiographical event recall, such as flashbulb memory recall, strengthens the argument for this phenomenon being universal. [5]

With flashbulb memories the study found a bias in memory immersion. When asked to focus on a positive flashbulb memory the person tended to re-immerse themselves into the memory and the memories were seen as shaping parts of their lives. The accuracy of these memories was susceptible to change in this mental reconstruction. When asked to focus on a negative flashbulb memory the person would not have this immersion as they did not want to associate as much with these negative experiences. However, the accuracy of negative flashbulb memory was far higher. FAB is thought to have a significant effect on how these memories are maintained within the mind. [13]

Dreams

Ritchie & Skowronski (2008) asked individuals to keep dream journals in which they rated their feelings about their dreams when they happened and were later asked to recall how they felt about those same dreams. [14] In line with previous findings about the nature of the FAB and autobiographical memory, positive affect at time of occurrence and at time of recall decreased slower than that of negative affect. An interesting finding in this study was that the FAB was mitigated by the use of recreational drugs. [14]

Moderating factors

Social moderators

Rehearsal

Sharing and repeating one's memories with others can effectively change one's perception of the memory and the emotions attached to it. [5] Frequently sharing memories with others can increase recall of positive event memories and effectively decrease negative event memories, thus promoting positive event memory recall. [15] To amplify effects of the FAB, frequent, repeated, social disclosure of event memories, perceived as social support is integral. [5] Overall, the sharing of events with others can positively influence the way an individual remembers events, however self-rehearsal does not yield the same results, as it is linked to a lack of affective fading overall. [15] [5] Self-rehearsal can allow the subject to maintain the vividness of both positive and negative of the memory. The effect that rehearsal has on FAB can also possibly be explained by the relationship between event rehearsal and memory retainment and vividness [16]

Personality moderators

Anxiety

FAB's effectiveness can be affected by anxiety. Depending on the amount of anxiety a person is experiencing the effectiveness of FAB can be reduced. Increased levels of anxiety lowered FAB for both positive and negative events. This has been found in multiple studies showing anxiety has a powerful effect on FAB. [4] Those with higher anxiety seem to show that increased levels of anxiety may produce a greater sense of awareness that amplify the emotional aspects of their memory of an event. [17]

Something to consider from these findings is that those that suffer from anxiety report more emotional experiences, and a poorer understanding of their own emotions. These people recall experiences with more emotion than was originally there but struggle to define those emotions within the memory. Studies have looked at this in relation to those with trait anxiety who are stuck in a state of anticipating a threat whether real or perceived. [17] Other studies have shown that individuals that suffer with higher levels of anxiety do not have to be consciously aware that perceived threats are distracting them and creating more anxiety for themselves (Bishop, 2007). Those experiencing higher levels of anxiety seem to experience these effects more than others, which likely affects how they experience the world and how they recall autobiographical memories. [17]

Depression

The presence of depression or dysphoria can moderate the effectiveness of FAB. The overall contents of autobiographical memories between depressed and non-depressed individuals differ in that a dysphoric autobiographical memory has more negative event memories. [1] As found in multiple studies, the disproportionate amount of negative memories of a dysphoric individual can be attributed to the interruption of the FAB. Negative memories tend to fade slower in dysphorics than in non-dysphorics, and furthermore dysphorics' positive memories and negative memories seem to fade at similar rates. [1] [5] [18]

Narcissism

Narcissists are seen as having extremely high levels of self-esteem, thus one would believe they have an elevated FAB, however this is not the case. The more narcissistic an individual is, it has been found, the less of an FAB effect is present. [4] An exception to this depends on the type of event memory that is being recalled. When the focus of the event memory is the narcissist or something that they did, the FAB is present. [5] However, when focused on a memory involving a group or community, FAB was not present. There is some evidence that those with low levels of narcissism experience the FAB effect more and that there is a correlation between levels of narcissism and FAB. [18] The moderation of the FAB by narcissism provides more evidence that FAB is an indicator of healthy emotional regulation [5]

Emotional moderators

Mood

It is a common misconception when looking at the FAB that the mood state of the individual during recall will significantly impact their perception of the event. [5] For example, a person is only looking back at a negative event with a positive lens because they are currently in a good mood. A study by Ritchie et al. (2009) found this to be partially true in that the most positive individuals at time of recall have a more pertinent FAB effect, however FAB was still experienced by everyone no matter their emotional state, reinforcing that FAB is a universal experience that functions beyond the current emotional state. [7]

Possible explanations

FAB is regarded as a generally beneficial occurrence. A popular explanation for the FAB among psychologists and researchers alike, is the need for healthy self-awareness, self-regulation and positive self view. [5] [19] Effectively regulating negative emotions in autobiographical memories reduces maladaptive future behavior and allows for the enhancing of the self. [1] FAB allows for successful social navigation by promoting the retention of positive experiences, thus allowing for an individual to be open to new experiences as modeled in the Broaden-and-Build theory. [1] This is further supported by evidence which shows that individuals with depression, a maladaptive disorder, experience interference with FAB by retaining negative emotions from unpleasant memories. [18] FAB may also be attributed to one's drive to protect oneself from recalling traumatic experiences and may also explain why negative experiences may feel farther away in time than they actually are. [19] Overall, the fading affect bias is seen as an adaptive behavior in healthy individuals that allows for a more positive outlook on life [1]

Cultural Considerations

Much of the research for FAB has been done almost exclusively in the US. Time and again the results and effects of FAB are shown in normal life and within the lab. There is a concern that FAB is only prevalent within the US and that it could reflect US attitude of "looking to the brightside." In light of this Ritchie and associates did a test of 10 different samples from 6 different universities with access to diverse ethnic backgrounds. FAB occurred in every sample regardless of background establishing a solid foundation that FAB seems to be universal. [5] Knowing that FAB is universal doesn't mean that it as prevalent in all cultures though. Culture effectively standardizes the customs and rituals that formalize the human relationships according to the core groups' value system. It, therefore, enables individuals and groups to reduce stress by anticipating events. Different cultures experience stress, depression and these other emotions differently, which can greatly affect how prevalent FAB is within that particular culture. [17]

Related Research Articles

A flashbulb memory is a vivid, long-lasting memory about a surprising or shocking event that has happened in the past.

The peak–end rule is a psychological heuristic in which people judge an experience largely based on how they felt at its peak and at its end, rather than based on the total sum or average of every moment of the experience. The effect occurs regardless of whether the experience is pleasant or unpleasant. To the heuristic, other information aside from that of the peak and end of the experience is not lost, but it is not used. This includes net pleasantness or unpleasantness and how long the experience lasted. The peak–end rule is thereby a specific form of the more general extension neglect and duration neglect.

In the psychology of affective forecasting, the impact bias, a form of which is the durability bias, is the tendency for people to overestimate the length or the intensity of future emotional states.

Rosy retrospection is a proposed psychological phenomenon of recalling the past more positively than it was actually experienced.

Emotional reasoning is a cognitive process by which an individual concludes that their emotional reaction proves something is true, despite contrary empirical evidence. Emotional reasoning creates an 'emotional truth', which may be in direct conflict with the inverse 'perceptional truth'. It can create feelings of anxiety, fear, and apprehension in existing stressful situations, and as such, is often associated with or triggered by panic disorder or anxiety disorder. For example, even though a spouse has shown only devotion, a person using emotional reasoning might conclude, "I know my spouse is being unfaithful because I feel jealous."

Affective forecasting is the prediction of one's affect in the future. As a process that influences preferences, decisions, and behavior, affective forecasting is studied by both psychologists and economists, with broad applications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Affect (psychology)</span> Experience of feeling or emotion

Affect, in psychology, refers to the underlying experience of feeling, emotion, attachment, or mood. In psychology, "affect" refers to the experience of feeling or emotion. It encompasses a wide range of emotional states and can be positive or negative. Affect is a fundamental aspect of human experience and plays a central role in many psychological theories and studies. It can be understood as a combination of three components: emotion, mood, and affectivity. In psychology, the term "affect" is often used interchangeably with several related terms and concepts, though each term may have slightly different nuances. These terms encompass: emotion, feeling, mood, emotional state, sentiment, affective state, emotional response, affective reactivity, disposition. Researchers and psychologists may employ specific terms based on their focus and the context of their work.

Mood congruence is the consistency between a person's emotional state with the broader situations and circumstances being experienced by the persons at that time. By contrast, mood incongruence occurs when the individual's reactions or emotional state appear to be in conflict with the situation. In the context of psychosis, hallucinations and delusions may be considered mood congruent or incongruent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Involuntary memory</span> Memory triggered by an environmental cue

Involuntary memory, also known as involuntary explicit memory, involuntary conscious memory, involuntary aware memory, madeleine moment, mind pops and most commonly, involuntary autobiographical memory, is a sub-component of memory that occurs when cues encountered in everyday life evoke recollections of the past without conscious effort. Voluntary memory, its opposite, is characterized by a deliberate effort to recall the past.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reminiscence bump</span> Memory phenomenon related to human aging

The reminiscence bump is the tendency for older adults to have increased or enhanced recollection for events that occurred during their adolescence and early adulthood. It was identified through the study of autobiographical memory and the subsequent plotting of the age of encoding of memories to form the lifespan retrieval curve.

The negativity bias, also known as the negativity effect, is a cognitive bias that, even when of equal intensity, things of a more negative nature have a greater effect on one's psychological state and processes than neutral or positive things. In other words, something very positive will generally have less of an impact on a person's behavior and cognition than something equally emotional but negative. The negativity bias has been investigated within many different domains, including the formation of impressions and general evaluations; attention, learning, and memory; and decision-making and risk considerations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Negative affectivity</span> Personality variable

Negative affectivity (NA), or negative affect, is a personality variable that involves the experience of negative emotions and poor self-concept. Negative affectivity subsumes a variety of negative emotions, including anger, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness. Low negative affectivity is characterized by frequent states of calmness and serenity, along with states of confidence, activeness, and great enthusiasm.

Autobiographical memory (AM) is a memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life, based on a combination of episodic and semantic memory. It is thus a type of explicit memory.

Emotion can have a powerful effect on humans and animals. Numerous studies have shown that the most vivid autobiographical memories tend to be of emotional events, which are likely to be recalled more often and with more clarity and detail than neutral events.

Mnemic neglect is a term used in social psychology to describe a pattern of selective forgetting in which certain autobiographical memories tend to be recalled more easily if they are consistent with positive self-concept. The mnemic neglect model stipulates that memory is self-protective if the information is negative, self-referent, and concerns central traits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of stress on memory</span> Overview of the effects of stress on memory

The effects of stress on memory include interference with a person's capacity to encode memory and the ability to retrieve information. Stimuli, like stress, improved memory when it was related to learning the subject. During times of stress, the body reacts by secreting stress hormones into the bloodstream. Stress can cause acute and chronic changes in certain brain areas which can cause long-term damage. Over-secretion of stress hormones most frequently impairs long-term delayed recall memory, but can enhance short-term, immediate recall memory. This enhancement is particularly relative in emotional memory. In particular, the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and the amygdala are affected. One class of stress hormone responsible for negatively affecting long-term, delayed recall memory is the glucocorticoids (GCs), the most notable of which is cortisol. Glucocorticoids facilitate and impair the actions of stress in the brain memory process. Cortisol is a known biomarker for stress. Under normal circumstances, the hippocampus regulates the production of cortisol through negative feedback because it has many receptors that are sensitive to these stress hormones. However, an excess of cortisol can impair the ability of the hippocampus to both encode and recall memories. These stress hormones are also hindering the hippocampus from receiving enough energy by diverting glucose levels to surrounding muscles.

A personal-event memory is an individual's memory of an event from a certain moment of time. Its defining characteristics are that it is for a specific event; includes vivid multi-sensory elements ; is usually recalled in detail; and is usually believed by the individual to be an accurate representation of the event.

A cognitive vulnerability in cognitive psychology is an erroneous belief, cognitive bias, or pattern of thought that predisposes an individual to psychological problems. The vulnerability exists before the symptoms of a psychological disorder appear. After the individual encounters a stressful experience, the cognitive vulnerability shapes a maladaptive response that increases the likelihood of a psychological disorder.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social sharing of emotions</span> Psychological phenomenon

The social sharing of emotions is a phenomenon in the field of psychology that concerns the tendency to recount and share emotional experiences with others. According to this area of research, emotional experiences are not uniquely fleeting and internal. Scientific studies of catastrophes and important life events demonstrate the propensity of victims to talk about their experiences and express their emotions. At the onset of these empirical studies, Rimé et al. coined the term "social sharing of emotions" in 1991 to name the observed phenomenon. This research was a significant development in social psychology because it questioned the accepted view of emotions—that emotions are short-lived and intrapersonal episodes—that was prevalent in the literature. Yet, the first set of experiments revealed that 88–96% of emotional experiences are shared and discussed to some degree. Therefore, the studies concerning the social sharing of emotions contribute a substantial new perspective to the understanding of emotions and their underlying processes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sleep and emotions</span> Overview about sleep and emotions

Emotions play a key role in overall mental health, and sleep plays a crucial role in maintaining the optimal homeostasis of emotional functioning. Deficient sleep, both in the form of sleep deprivation and restriction, adversely impacts emotion generation, emotion regulation, and emotional expression.

References

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