Feminist urbanism

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Feminist urbanism is a theory and social movement concerning the impact of the built environment on women. [1] The theory aims to understand what it means to be a woman in an urban space and what struggles and opportunities women encounter in these environments. [2]

Contents

Proponents of feminist urbanism advance a perspective that is critical of patriarchal and capitalist systems that have shaped and continue to shape architecture and urban planning, while negatively impacting women's lives. [1] Feminist urbanism also refers to the ways, both positive and negative, in which the built environment influences women's relations, freedoms, opportunities, mobility, and daily activities. As urban environments continue to grow globally, feminist urbanism argues that understanding the ways in which cultural, political, and economic systems have limited and oppressed women is necessary to create a future built environment that is more equitable, inclusive, sustainable, and enjoyable for all people. [2]

Feminist Urbanism Theory approaches life in urban environments from the point of view of the commons or shared resources, housing, public space, mobility, safety, sustainability, and design.

History of Women in Urban Environments

Care-Work and Gender Roles

Childcare. 1800s 1800schildcare.jpg
Childcare. 1800s

Care-Work in the context of domestic environments, as defined by Silvia Federici, is a “form of gendered economic oppression and an exploitation upon which all of capitalism rests”. [3] Historically, the responsibilities of domestic work and reproductive labor have fallen exponentially heavier on women. This unjust and unequitable share of responsibilities have prevented women from pursuing goals and freedoms outside of domesticity. [3]

From the Stone Age to the pre-industrial societies, women were responsible for child-care and other domestic activities such as agriculture, cooking, cleaning, and making clothes while men engaged in hunting and building activities. [3] These divisions came from biological aspects that made children more dependent of women while men had stronger physical compositions that made other activities less risky for them.[ citation needed ] As nomadic civilizations started to settle, technological developments guided communities into more complex systems of relationships, economics, and political organization, as well as an increased diversification of service needs and labor sectors. Since women were the ones who could birth and breast feed, childcare continued to be disproportionately put on women, while men were increasingly being liberated from reproductive and care-work responsibilities. [2] [4]

With the Industrial Revolution, a rapid growth of settlements made the binary gender imbalance more dramatic, forcing women to limit their contribution to society to the boundaries of domestic environments. [5] Federici claims that this “enclosure was made natural, as if domesticity was simply women’s inherent condition and desire”. [3] The periods of this transition and the strategies of oppression vary from country to country, but the spatial division between residential and socio-economic centers and the unequal empowerment between men and women remain at the root of inequitable urban environments across the world. [6]

The economic growth and social stability of our societies is reliant on women as they give birth and raise the labor force, as well as take care of domestic environments. Women handle this type of work without receiving any compensation and are forced to give up other economic or professional opportunities. These limitations make women dependent on men for money, which has a direct effect on their freedoms and agency. [3] Moreover, non-nuclear families also suffer from this inequality, as families led by a female partnership struggle to achieve economic stability with lower wages than men. Males that form a family also struggle to raise a family while balancing the labor demands put on this gender. [2]

Women who join the labor force struggle to care for children and housework and often delegate their responsibilities to lower-income women for low wages. Consequently, women involved in paid childcare are often forced to move away from their own children. [2] Women who join the labor force, are often called “domestic failures”. [3] Professional women also find themselves having to work harder to compete in a male economy, are paid lower wages and sometimes feel obliged to sacrifice marriage or childbearing for independence and professional growth. The strong imbalance of reproductive labor and domestic responsibilities between genders has direct and destructive consequences to economic development, environmental sustainability, democracy, health, childcare, and the just development of cities. [7]

Political scientist, Hannah Arendt, claimed that “the city is an organized memory, and in history women are the forgotten”. [8] Gender shapes the way that women can move through the city and the choices that are available to them. [2] The way cities have been built has contributed to enforcing patriarchal family, social and labor roles. [3] Geographical segregation, displacement, discrimination, and poverty have further influenced the urbanization processes and worsened women's quality of life. [6]

It is important to note, however, that women are a heterogenous group and differences in race, socio-economic status, education, income, sexual orientation, ethnicity, health, and other factors affect the degree and the ways in which patriarchal systems affect women's lives and urban experience. Indigenous and black women, for example, have been accused of contributing to urban crime for birthing uneducated and poor children. [2] This type of discrimination has contributed to these women being more affected by processes of urban gentrification, neighborhood deterioration and have even been submitted to forced sterilization. [9] [2]

Historically, cities have also offered women more freedom than rural communities. The options available to women are exponentially higher in cities due to their inherent demographic heterogeneity, size, and market-driven focus.

Decision-Making and Design of Urban Space

Built environments are said to reflect the values of the societies that built them. However, in industrial and post-industrial civilizations, built environments are often more a manifestation of the values specifically of the people with the power to build them. [5] Jane Dark, a feminist geographer, defended that “any settlement is an inscription in space of the social relations in the society that built it, our cities are patriarchy written in stone, brick, glass and concrete”. [2] The built environment has a level of permanence and durability that if done conservatively can represent ideas that are no longer in line with the values and needs of the current communities. [2] The commodification of space can also give place to a built environment that does not acknowledge, respond, or respect the historical, cultural, and social influence of a specific place, and thus buildings play an important role in normalizing or promoting inequality. [10] The buildings and infrastructure that define our cities have a direct and significant influence in the way people live their lives and the choices that are available to them. [5]

Cities are designed and planned by architects, urban planners, engineers, and policy makers. All fields that have historically been dominated by men. Thus, women have lacked representation and participation in the planning of urban space. According to the Women in Architecture department of the AIA, as of 1958 only 1% of registered architects were women. In 1999, the number had grown to 13.5%. As of 2020, only 17% of registered architects are women. [11] Women in the field continue to face challenges such as getting their voices heard, encountering glass ceilings, and being excluded from leadership positions. [11] Social geographer, Liz Bondi, argues that “simply adding women to the profession” will not necessarily mean that patriarchal systems are being challenged. Women in the fields of design and planning can still enforce patriarchal systems, often because how strongly these are embedded in our culture and professional education. [12] Biases in the research done by the field are also generated by “citational reliability”, where articles are for the most part written and influenced by a strict typology of middle-aged white men. [2] Moreover, the inclusion of women in the field and as imagined users of urban environments have also been disproportionate across race, social status and sexual orientation. [3]

Feminist urbanism establishes that cities have been designed based on a generalization of users, a focus on the nuclear family and a concept of neutral design. [2] Architecture has also based itself on the ideal of gender as binary and has supported the traditional gender roles that take men as the main users of the city. [13] Both concepts are increasingly not representative of the realities of contemporary societies. Major assumptions on behavioral patterns and a focus on planning taking as a typical urban citizen a white, heterosexual, abled-bodied, middle-income man has produced spaces that ignore the needs of other groups. [3] Women experience the city with physical, economic, and social barriers that are either gendered or not adequate for their unique set of needs. Inés Sánchez de Madariaga argues that recognizing women as urban individuals and understanding the key differences in the way they experience daily life in cities (in comparison to men) is an important step to achieve just and equitable urban environments. [6]

Theory

Theories of feminist urbanism, study the historical causes and impacts of female exclusion from urban environments, urban scholarship, design, and decision-making. The theories also present the different ways in which urban environments pose barriers for women to live prosperous, independent, and balanced lives, while also acknowledging the increased opportunities and freedoms cities can provide for women. The theory of feminist urbanism is derived on the ideals of feminism.

The Commons

The Commons is a theory and socio-economic movement that opposes capitalist and patriarchal ideals of property and labor, in favor of a socialist collaboration among communities to meet the responsibilities of housework and care-work. Commons in the context of Feminist urbanism refers to shared spaces and shared resources. [14] Urban farming, community gardens, childcare facilities and shared kitchens are some examples of these types of spaces that allow for different forms of cooperation and collaboration in basic daily activities. The theory proposes embracing the local culture and resources, rejecting a universalization of space or policy, by rather adapting these to the needs of different communities. [15]

In Evicted, Matthew Desmond shares how communities of distressed neighborhoods in Milwaukee helped each other with payments, errands, and other emergencies, more so than communities in wealthier neighborhoods. These exchanges of favors elevated the stability of community members and created an environment that was much more caring and “human”. However, Desmond notes that communities that had experienced trauma would be less likely to engage in collaborative actions to improve their quality of life. He notes, “A community that saw so clearly its own pain had a difficult time also sensing its potential.” [9]

The Commons theory is often associated to a movement away from private ownership and commodities to the extent in which they start to divide and alienate our spaces and our communities. In her book, Re-Enchanting the World: Feminism and the Politics of the Commons, Federici defines the commons or commoning as a “collective re-appropriation and collective struggle against the ways we have been divided” and as a practice of “putting more and more of your life outside the reaches of commodification or extraction”. [3] She argues that living in a world driven by competition and individual prosperity at the expense of others is a recipe for defeat. Capitalism in the context of quality of life, has failed to provide an equalitarian access to resources and has not met the basic needs of many populations, leaving them in vulnerable economic, political, and social contexts. [2] [5] Federici argues that The Commons can be a way to oppose capitalism by working together as a mode of survival and prosperity. [3]

This theory, in recent years, has become popular in conversations about climate change as shared resources and spaces are ways to reduce waste, increase density and promote more green, sustainable, walkable, and accessible spaces for all. [14]

Housing

In the United States, at the end of the nineteenth century, millions of immigrants that lived in industrial cities started to move to suburbs that offered better living conditions. After World War II, suburban life boomed, especially among white middle-income families, with the aid of Federal Housing Administration loans and VA mortgages that made single-family homes in these periphery areas much more affordable. White flight also played an important role in this movement of whites to the suburbs as black families moved from the South to Northern cities. [5] Suburbs were excessively marketed by developers as prefabricated affordable neighborhoods perfect for nuclear families, in which men worked and women took care of domestic work. [2] Betty Friedan, called this assumption of women being fulfilled only by housework and childcare the “feminine mystique”. [16]

These housing developments were predominantly car dependent, alienated from commercial spaces, economic centers, and other services, which increased the difficulty of managing housework and professional demands. Consequently, this strict separation of housing from labor opportunities and services set the stage for a more dramatic gender division of labor. [2] Women were unable to easily access labor opportunities, engage in political lives or socialize beyond their immediate surroundings. Today, the housing typologies of suburbs remain, but do not adequately respond to the realities of heterogenous families and contemporary lives.

Most cities provide more opportunities for women to meet the multiplicity of demands put on them in terms of accessing services in shorter distances than suburbs or rural areas do. However, often cities are not built for care-work activities, and pose multiple barriers for women's mobility, safety, and equal access to spaces. [2] For example, housing in cities can be much more expensive, especially in walkable areas and public transportation without proper amenities can prevent families from moving comfortably. [17] In addition, the lack of spaces for childcare in offices can prevent men and women from balancing work and parenthood demands. A lot of the solutions to respond to urban problems have been market-based, requiring extra pay to access convenient services such as childcare, safe housing or neighborhood amenities. [2] In addition, urban apartments still struggle to respond to the changing needs of families. [5]

Housing both in urban and suburban environments can be more equalitarian by responding to the needs of families for affordable, accessible, sustainable, and well-networked services, that allow both men and women to participate equally in the sharing of domestic and professional labor. [18] Bringing care-work to the forefront of urban design and making services accessible by distance and diverse transportation networks can improve the quality of life of urban families and is an important way to promote equal access to resources and opportunities for all genders. [2] Dolores Hayden argued that a new, more inclusive way of designing and thinking of homes, neighborhoods and cities is necessary to support the activities of employed women. [18] To transform housing, Hayden establishes that men and women need to be equally involved in paid and unpaid labor, we need to eliminate housing segregation by class, race, age and other factors, minimize unpaid domestic labor and waste, and maximize choices for recreation, social activities and basic needs. In addition to this, housing developments need to apply the theory of the commons to offer collective spaces. Finally, all services need to be accessible through well-designed walking networks and complemented by other infrastructure needs such as shading systems, seating, public restrooms and so on. [18]

In The Grand Domestic Revolution, Hayden outlines multiple projects since the 1800s that have looked to socialize housework and encourage collaboration in domestic environments.

Major Advocates and Resources

People

Publications and organizations

See also

Related Research Articles

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Homemaking is mainly an American and Canadian term for the management of a home, otherwise known as housework, housekeeping, housewifery or household management. It is the act of overseeing the organizational, day-to-day operations of a house or estate, and the managing of other domestic concerns. A person in charge of the homemaking, who is not employed outside the home, in the US and Canada, is called a homemaker, a term for a housewife or a househusband. Historically the role of homemaker was often assumed by women. The term "homemaker", however, may also refer to a social worker who manages a household during the incapacity of the housewife or househusband. Home health workers assume the role of homemakers when caring for elderly individuals. This includes preparing meals, giving baths, and any duties the person in need cannot perform for themselves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminist economics</span> Gender-aware branch of economics

Feminist economics is the critical study of economics and economies, with a focus on gender-aware and inclusive economic inquiry and policy analysis. Feminist economic researchers include academics, activists, policy theorists, and practitioners. Much feminist economic research focuses on topics that have been neglected in the field, such as care work, intimate partner violence, or on economic theories which could be improved through better incorporation of gendered effects and interactions, such as between paid and unpaid sectors of economies. Other feminist scholars have engaged in new forms of data collection and measurement such as the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM), and more gender-aware theories such as the capabilities approach. Feminist economics is oriented towards the goal of "enhancing the well-being of children, women, and men in local, national, and transnational communities."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Housewife</span> Married woman whose occupation is managing the familys home

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Feminist geography is a sub-discipline of human geography that applies the theories, methods, and critiques of feminism to the study of the human environment, society, and geographical space. Feminist geography emerged in the 1970s, when members of the women's movement called on academia to include women as both producers and subjects of academic work. Feminist geographers aim to incorporate positions of race, class, ability, and sexuality into the study of geography. The discipline was a target for the hoaxes of the grievance studies affair.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Double burden</span> Workload of people who both earn money and have significant domestic responsibilities

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Silvia Federici is a scholar, teacher, and feminist activist based in New York. She is a professor emerita and teaching fellow at Hofstra University in New York State, where she was a social science professor. She also taught at the University of Port Harcourt in Nigeria from 1984 to 1986. In 1972, with Mariarosa Dalla Costa and Selma James, she co-founded the International Feminist Collective, the organization that launched the campaign for Wages for Housework. In 1990, Federici co-founded the Committee for Academic Freedom in Africa (CAFA), and, with Ousseina Alidou, was the editor of the CAFA bulletin for over a decade. She was also a member of the Academic Association of Africa Scholars (ACAS) and among the voices generating support for the struggles of students across the African continent and in the United States. In 1995, in the course of the campaign to demand the liberation of Mumia Abu-Jamal, she cofounded the Radical Philosophy Association (RPA) anti-death penalty project, an organization intended to help educators become a driving force towards its abolition. From 1979 to 2003, she was a member of the Midnight Notes Collective.

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Alice Constance Austin (1862–1955) was an American architect, city planner, radical feminist, socialist, designer and utopist. Her most famous proposal at Llano del Rio, though never fully realized, greatly impacted later city designs and architectural planning. In 1935, Austin published her book The Next Step; How to Plan for Beauty, Comfort, and Peace with Great Savings Effected by the Reduction of Waste, discussing socialism, difficulties with the Llano del Rio project, and some of her other ideas on planning. Her feminist efforts in the history of city planning have gone so far as to influence the development of modern-day issues such as minimum wage, social security, low cost housing, welfare, and universal healthcare.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Unpaid work</span> Labor that does not receive any direct remuneration

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Care work</span> Type of employment based on affection rather than immediate pecuniary reward

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wages for housework</span> Global feminist movement

The International Wages for Housework Campaign (IWFHC) is a grassroots women's network campaigning for recognition and payment for all caring work, in the home and outside. It was started in 1972 by Mariarosa Dalla Costa, Silvia Federici, Brigitte Galtier, and Selma James who first put forward the demand for wages for housework. At the third National Women's Liberation Conference in Manchester, England, the IWFHC states that they begin with those with least power internationally – unwaged workers in the home (mothers, housewives, domestic workers denied pay), and unwaged subsistence farmers and workers on the land and in the community. They consider the demand for wages for unwaged caring work to be also a perspective and a way of organizing from the bottom up, of autonomous sectors working together to end the power relations among them.

Women migrant workers from developing countries engage in paid employment in countries where they are not citizens. While women have traditionally been considered companions to their husbands in the migratory process, most adult migrant women today are employed in their own right. In 2017, of the 168 million migrant workers, over 68 million were women. The increase in proportion of women migrant workers since the early twentieth century is often referred to as the "feminization of migration".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecofeminism</span> Approach to feminism influenced by ecologist movement

Ecofeminism is a branch of feminism and political ecology. Ecofeminist thinkers draw on the concept of gender to analyse the relationships between humans and the natural world. The term was coined by the French writer Françoise d'Eaubonne in her book Le Féminisme ou la Mort (1974). Ecofeminist theory asserts a feminist perspective of Green politics that calls for an egalitarian, collaborative society in which there is no one dominant group. Today, there are several branches of ecofeminism, with varying approaches and analyses, including liberal ecofeminism, spiritual/cultural ecofeminism, and social/socialist ecofeminism. Interpretations of ecofeminism and how it might be applied to social thought include ecofeminist art, social justice and political philosophy, religion, contemporary feminism, and poetry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reproductive labor</span> Type of domestic labor

Reproductive labor or work is often associated with care giving and domestic housework roles including cleaning, cooking, child care, and the unpaid domestic labor force. The term has taken on a role in feminist philosophy and discourse as a way of calling attention to how women in particular are assigned to the domestic sphere, where the labor is reproductive and thus uncompensated and unrecognized in a capitalist system. These theories have evolved as a parallel of histories focusing on the entrance of women into the labor force in the 1970s, providing an intersectionalist approach that recognizes that women have been a part of the labor force since before their incorporation into mainstream industry if reproductive labor is considered.

References

  1. 1 2 Levy, John (2013). Contemporary Urban Planning. Rutledge Publishing.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Kern, Leslie (2019). Feminist City: A Field Guide. ECW Press Audio.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Federici, Silvia (2019). Re-Enchanting the World: Feminism and the Politics of the Commons. PM Press.
  4. ↑ Aureli Vittorio, Pier; Giudici Sheherazade, Maria (2016). "Familiar Horror: Toward a Critique of Domestic Space". Log.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hayden, Dolores (1981). The Grand Domestic Revolution: a History of Feminist Designs for American Homes, Neighborhoods, and Cities. MIT Press.
  6. 1 2 3 Sánchez de Madariaga, Inés; Neuman, Michael (2020). Engendering Cities : Designing Sustainable Urban Spaces for All. Routledge.
  7. ↑ Squier, Susan Merrill (1984). Women Writers and the City: Essays in Feminist Literary Criticism. University of Tennessee Press.
  8. ↑ Falu, Ana (2016). "Gender perspectives in urban planning". YouTube .
  9. 1 2 Desmond, Matthew (2017). Evicted: Poverty and Profit in the American City. Penguin Random House LLC.
  10. ↑ Buckley, Michelle (2016). "With, Against and Beyond Lefebvre: Planetary Urbanization and Epistemic Plurality". Environment and Planning D: Society and Space. 34 (4): 617–636. doi:10.1177/0263775816628872. S2CID   148365637.
  11. 1 2 AIA. "Women in Architecture History and Current Conditions".
  12. ↑ Bondi, Liz (2002). Subjectivities, Knowledges, and Feminist Geographies: the Subjects and Ethics of Social Research. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield.
  13. ↑ Greed, Clara H. (1994). Women and Planning: Creating Gendered Realities. Routledge.
  14. 1 2 Mies, Maria (2014). "No commons without a community". Oxford University Press.
  15. ↑ Mies, Maria; Bennholdt-Thomsen, Veronika (2001). "Defending, Reclaiming and Reinventing the Commons". Canadian Journal of Development Studies. 22 (4): 997–1023. doi:10.1080/02255189.2001.9669952. S2CID   153406081.
  16. ↑ Friedan, Betty (1963). The Feminine Mystique. W.W.Norton.
  17. ↑ Jacobs, Jane (1963). The Death and Life of Great American Cities.
  18. 1 2 3 Hayden, Dolores (1980). "What Would a Non-Sexist City Be Like? Speculations on Housing, Urban Design, and Human Work". The University of Chicago Press.
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